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伊斯坦堡大屠殺

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伊斯坦堡大屠殺
位置土耳其伊斯坦堡
座標41°02′13″N 28°59′06″E / 41.0369°N 28.985°E / 41.0369; 28.985
日期1955年9月6-7日
目標私人財產、東正教教堂、城市中希臘裔居民的墳墓
類型暴亂
死亡詳細數字未知，不同估計有從13人至37人或更多。[1][2]
受傷超過1000人受傷，[2] 大約200–400 希臘裔 婦女和男孩被強姦[2][3]
主謀戰術動員組（英語：Tactical Mobilisation Group） (特種部隊)、民主黨（英語：Democrat Party (Turkey, historical)）、[4] 國家安全部（英語：National Security Service (Turkey)）、[5] 土耳其裔賽普勒斯協會(英語：Turkish Cyprus Association)[6]

伊斯坦堡大屠殺，也稱為伊斯坦堡騷亂， [7] [3]是 1955 年 9 月 6 日至 7 日發生的一系列由政府支持的反希臘暴亂，主要針對伊斯坦堡的希臘少數民族。 [8] [9]這場屠殺是由土耳其執政黨民主黨在各維安組織（戰術動員組、反游擊隊和國家安全局）的協助下策劃的。 [10]此次事件的導火線是土耳其駐希臘共和國馬其頓塞薩洛尼基領事館遭轟炸。 1881 年，穆斯塔法·凱末爾·阿塔圖爾克就出生在此處。 [11]這枚炸彈實際上是領事館的一名土耳其接待員放置的，此人後來被捕並承認了罪行。土耳其媒體對逮捕事件保持沉默，反而暗示是希臘人引爆了炸彈。 [2]

這場大屠殺有時被描述為針對希臘人的種族滅絕，因為根據阿爾弗雷德·莫里斯·德扎亞斯 (Alfred-Maurice de Zayas) 的說法，儘管此暴亂死亡人數相對較少，但它「滿足了 1948 年《防止及懲治滅絕種族罪公約》第 2 條的標準，因為明顯存在『全部或部分消滅』伊斯坦堡希臘少數民族的意圖，這場大屠殺是由土耳其總理阿德南·曼德列斯的政府策劃的」，並且「由於這場大屠殺，希臘少數民族最終移出土耳其。」 [2]

一群土耳其暴徒對伊斯坦堡的希臘社區進行了長達九個小時的襲擊，其中大部分成員事先被卡車運進城內。儘管暴徒沒有明確要求殺害希臘人，但在襲擊期間和之後，因毆打和縱火而死亡的人數有十多人。亞美尼亞人和猶太人在此暴亂中也受到了傷害。 [12]警方大多漠視此暴亂，暴力事件持續不斷，直到政府宣布在伊斯坦堡實施戒嚴，並調派軍隊鎮壓騷亂。 [13]此暴亂中總財物損失估計為5億美元（相當於2024年的58.69億美元），其中包括教堂被燒毀以及商店和私人住宅被毀造成的財物損失。 [2]

這場屠殺大大加速了希臘族移出土耳其，特別是在伊斯坦堡的希臘裔。土耳其的希臘族人口從1927年的119,822 人[14]下降到 1978 年的約7,000 人[15]僅在伊斯坦堡，講希臘語的人口在 1955 年至 1960 年間從65,108人減少到49,081人。 [14]土耳其外交部2008 年公布的數據顯示，希臘裔土耳其公民的數量為 3,000-4,000 人； [16]而根據人權觀察組織在2006 年的統計，希臘裔土耳其公民的人數估計為2,500 人。 [17]

這些襲擊被描述為鄂圖曼帝國衰落後開始的土耳其化進程的延續， [8] [18] [19]因為被襲擊的財產中約有 40% 屬於其他少數民族。 [11]一些媒體將此次暴亂與1938年納粹德國針對猶太人的水晶之夜暴亂進行了比較。 [20] [3] [21]

2009年，時任土耳其總理埃爾多安表示：「土耳其犯了錯誤，過去那些具有不同民族認同的少數群體被驅逐出我們的國家是法西斯政策的結果。」 [22] [23] [24]

參考資料

[編輯]
  1. ^ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου (PDF). University of Thessaloniki: 29. [3 October 2011]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於26 January 2012）. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 de Zayas, Alfred. The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law. Genocide Studies and Prevention. August 2007, 2 (2): 137–154 [11 October 2015]. ISSN 1911-0359. （原始內容存檔於19 May 2022）. The Septemvriana satisfies the criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the 『『intent to destroy in whole or in part』』 the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. Even if the number of deaths (estimated at thirty-seven) among members of the Greek community was relatively low, the result of the pogrom was the flight and emigration of the Greek minority of Istanbul, which once numbered some 100,000 and was subsequently reduced to a few thousand. The vast destruction of Greek property, businesses, and churches provides evidence of the Turkish authorities』 intent to terrorize the Greeks in Istanbul into abandoning the territory, thus eliminating the Greek minority. This practice falls within the ambit of the crime of 『『ethnic cleansing,』』 which the UN General Assembly and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia have interpreted as constituting a form of genocide... Besides the deaths, thousands were injured; some 200 Greek women were raped, and there are reports that Greek boys were raped as well. Many Greek men, including at least one priest, were subjected to forced circumcision. The riots were accompanied by enormous material damage, estimated by Greek authorities at US$500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. As a result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey.  引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「zayas」的<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Erdemir, Aykan. The Turkish Kristallnacht. Politico Europe. 7 September 2016 [6 September 2016]. （原始內容存檔於20 October 2016）.  引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「Politico」的<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次
  4. ^ 引用錯誤：沒有為名為Vryonis2005的參考文獻提供內容
  5. ^ Birand, Mehmet Ali. "The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us," Turkish Daily News, 7 September 2005.
  6. ^ 引用錯誤：沒有為名為guven3的參考文獻提供內容
  7. ^ Also known in Greece as the September events (希臘語：Σεπτεμβριανά，羅馬化：Septemvriana，直譯：「Events of September」; 土耳其語：6–7 Eylül Olayları，直譯：「Events of 6–7 September」), also referred to as the Turkish Kristallnacht
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Jongerden, Joost. The Routledge Handbook on Contemporary Turkey. Routledge. 2021: 56 [15 February 2022]. ISBN 978-0-429-55906-8. （原始內容存檔於5 April 2023） （英語）. In 1934 and 1955, the Thrace and Istanbul pogroms respectively, were state-sponsored attacks which were committed against non-Muslim populations as part of the Turkish government's plan to create a homogeneous Turkish nation during the post-Republican period.  引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「:0」的<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次
  9. ^ Katsoulas, Spyros. The United States and Greek–Turkish Relations: The Guardian's Dilemma. Routledge. 2021: 59 [30 May 2022]. ISBN 978-1-000-51433-9. （原始內容存檔於30 May 2022） （英語）. In September 1955, the Turkish government orchestrated anti-Greek riots in Istanbul, amassing an angry mob for a pogrom that left tens of people dead, thousands of houses and shops destroyed, and an indelible mark on Greek–Turkish history. 
  10. ^ Benlisoy, Foti. Anti-Greek riots of September 1955 in Constantinople (Istanbul). Constantinople.ehw.gr. 2008 [8 September 2020]. （原始內容存檔於22 April 2021）. There is a general consensus that the events broke out on the government’s initiative and they were organised in collaboration with the secret police 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Güven, Dilek. 6–7 Eylül Olayları (1). Radikal. 2005-09-06. （原始內容存檔於2008-09-15） （土耳其語）.  引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「guven1」的<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次
  12. ^ de Zayas, Alfred. The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law. Genocide Studies and Prevention. August 2007, 2 (2): 138 [11 October 2015]. ISSN 1911-0359. （原始內容存檔於19 May 2022）. 
  13. ^ Yaman, Ilker. The Istanbul Pogrom. We Love Istanbul. 2014-03-17 [8 September 2016]. （原始內容存檔於7 October 2016）. 
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Tsilenisdemography-lab.prd.uth.gr 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期9 May 2021.
  15. ^ Kilic, Ecevit. Sermaye nasıl el değiştirdi?. Sabah. 2008-09-07 [2008-12-25]. （原始內容存檔於12 March 2017） （土耳其語）. 6–7 Eylül olaylarından önce İstanbul'da 135 bin Rum yaşıyordu. Sonrasında bu sayı 70 bine düştü. 1978'e gelindiğinde bu rakam 7 bindi. 
  16. ^ Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey. Today's Zaman. 2008-12-15 [2008-12-15]. （原始內容存檔於2010-05-01）. 
  17. ^ From "Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity" series of Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 2 July 2006. （原始內容存檔於2006-07-07）. 
  18. ^ Kuyucu, Ali Tuna. Ethno-religious 'unmixing' of 'Turkey': 6–7 September riots as a case in Turkish nationalism. Nations and Nationalism. 2005, 11 (3): 361–380. doi:10.1111/j.1354-5078.2005.00209.x. 
  19. ^ Gurel, Meltem (編). Mid-Century Modernism in Turkey: Architecture Across Cultures in the 1950s and 1960s. Routledge. 2015: 64–65. ISBN 978-1317616375. 
  20. ^ Maglinis, Ilias K. Istanbul 1955: The anatomy of a pogrom. Kathimerini. 28 June 2005 [6 September 2016]. （原始內容存檔於24 September 2016）. The rally got out of control and resulted in a «Kristallnacht» against Greeks in Istanbul. 
  21. ^ Zeynalov, Mahir. Mahir Zeynalov on Twitter. 5 September 2016 [6 September 2016]. （原始內容存檔於27 September 2016）. Tomorrow is the 61st anniversary of Turkey's own Kristallnacht, in which Greeks, Armenians and Jews were attacked and lynched. 
  22. ^ Erdoğan'ın sözleri Atina'da yankı buldu [Erdogan's words echoed in Athens]. Sabah. 26 May 2009 [20 January 2020]. （原始內容存檔於26 August 2021） （土耳其語）. Erdogan's words about the expulsion of people with different ethnic identities were covered in the Greek press with the headline "Prime Minister made self-criticism" 
  23. ^ Erdogan attacks the past, labels Kemalist ethnic cleansing Fascist. www.asianews.it. [2023-07-12]. （原始內容存檔於12 July 2023） （英語）. 
  24. ^ Farklı kimliktekileri kovduk 'sözüne tepki. www.ntv.com.tr. [2022-01-15]. （原始內容存檔於15 January 2022） （土耳其語）. 
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