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伊斯坦堡大屠殺

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伊斯坦堡大屠殺
位置土耳其伊斯坦堡
坐标41°02′13″N 28°59′06″E / 41.0369°N 28.985°E / 41.0369; 28.985
日期1955年9月6-7日
目標私人財產、東正教教堂、城市中希臘裔居民的墳墓
類型暴亂
死亡詳細數字未知，不同估計有從13人至37人或更多。[1][2]
受傷超過1000人受傷，[2] 大約200–400 希臘裔 婦女和男孩被強姦[2][3]
主謀戰術動員組（英语：Tactical Mobilisation Group） (特種部隊)、民主黨（英语：Democrat Party (Turkey, historical)）、[4] 國家安全部（英语：National Security Service (Turkey)）、[5] 土耳其裔賽普勒斯協會(英語：Turkish Cyprus Association)[6]

伊斯坦布尔大屠杀，也称为伊斯坦布尔骚乱， [7] [3]是 1955 年 9 月 6 日至 7 日发生的一系列由政府支持的反希腊暴亂，主要针对伊斯坦堡的希腊少数民族。 [8] [9]這場屠殺是由土耳其執政黨民主黨在各維安组織（战术动员组、反游击队和国家安全局）的协助下策劃的。 [10]此次事件的導火線是土耳其驻希腊共和国马其顿塞萨洛尼基領事馆遭轟炸。 1881 年，穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔图尔克就出生在此处。 [11]这枚炸彈實際上是领事馆的一名土耳其接待员放置的，此人后来被捕并承认了罪行。土耳其媒体对逮捕事件保持沉默，反而暗示是希臘人引爆了炸彈。 [2]

这場大屠殺有时被描述為針對希臘人的種族滅绝，因为根据阿爾弗雷德·莫里斯·德扎亞斯 (Alfred-Maurice de Zayas) 的说法，尽管此暴亂死亡人数相对较少，但它“满足了 1948 年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》第 2 条的标准，因为明显存在‘全部或部分消灭’伊斯坦堡希腊少数民族的意圖，这场大屠杀是由土耳其总理阿德南·曼德列斯的政府策劃的”，并且“由于這場大屠殺，希臘少数民族最终移出土耳其。” [2]

一群土耳其暴徒對伊斯坦堡的希腊社区進行了長達九個小时的袭击，其中大部分成员事先被卡车運進城内。儘管暴徒没有明确要求杀害希腊人，但在袭击期间和之后，因殴打和纵火而死亡的人數有十多人。亚美尼亚人和犹太人在此暴亂中也受到了伤害。 [12]警方大多漠視此暴亂，暴力事件持续不断，直到政府宣布在伊斯坦堡实施戒嚴，並調派軍隊镇压骚乱。 [13]此暴亂中總財物损失估计为5億美元（相当于2024年的58.69億美元），其中包括教堂被烧毁以及商店和私人住宅被毁造成的財物損失。 [2]

这场屠杀大大加速了希腊族移出土耳其，特别是在伊斯坦堡的希腊裔。土耳其的希腊族人口从1927年的119,822 人[14]下降到 1978 年的约7,000 人[15]僅在伊斯坦堡，講希臘语的人口在 1955 年至 1960 年間從65,108人減少到49,081人。 [14]土耳其外交部2008 年公布的數據显示，希臘裔土耳其公民的数量为 3,000-4,000 人； [16]而根据人權觀察組織在2006 年的统计，希腊裔土耳其公民的人数估计為2,500 人。 [17]

这些襲擊被描述为奥斯曼帝国衰落后开始的土耳其化进程的延续， [8] [18] [19]因为被襲擊的財產中约有 40% 属于其他少数民族。 [11]一些媒体將此次暴亂與1938年纳粹德国针对犹太人的水晶之夜暴亂进行了比较。 [20] [3] [21]

2009年，时任土耳其总理埃尔多安表示：「土耳其犯了错误，过去那些具有不同民族认同的少数群体被驱逐出我们的国家是法西斯政策的结果。」 [22] [23] [24]

參考資料

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  1. ^ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου (PDF). University of Thessaloniki: 29. [3 October 2011]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于26 January 2012）. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 de Zayas, Alfred. The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law. Genocide Studies and Prevention. August 2007, 2 (2): 137–154 [11 October 2015]. ISSN 1911-0359. （原始内容存档于19 May 2022）. The Septemvriana satisfies the criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the ‘‘intent to destroy in whole or in part’’ the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. Even if the number of deaths (estimated at thirty-seven) among members of the Greek community was relatively low, the result of the pogrom was the flight and emigration of the Greek minority of Istanbul, which once numbered some 100,000 and was subsequently reduced to a few thousand. The vast destruction of Greek property, businesses, and churches provides evidence of the Turkish authorities’ intent to terrorize the Greeks in Istanbul into abandoning the territory, thus eliminating the Greek minority. This practice falls within the ambit of the crime of ‘‘ethnic cleansing,’’ which the UN General Assembly and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia have interpreted as constituting a form of genocide... Besides the deaths, thousands were injured; some 200 Greek women were raped, and there are reports that Greek boys were raped as well. Many Greek men, including at least one priest, were subjected to forced circumcision. The riots were accompanied by enormous material damage, estimated by Greek authorities at US$500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. As a result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey.  引用错误：带有name属性“zayas”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Erdemir, Aykan. The Turkish Kristallnacht. Politico Europe. 7 September 2016 [6 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于20 October 2016）.  引用错误：带有name属性“Politico”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  4. ^ 引用错误：没有为名为Vryonis2005的参考文献提供内容
  5. ^ Birand, Mehmet Ali. "The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us," Turkish Daily News, 7 September 2005.
  6. ^ 引用错误：没有为名为guven3的参考文献提供内容
  7. ^ Also known in Greece as the September events (希臘語：Σεπτεμβριανά，羅馬化：Septemvriana，直译：「Events of September」; 土耳其語：6–7 Eylül Olayları，直译：「Events of 6–7 September」), also referred to as the Turkish Kristallnacht
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Jongerden, Joost. The Routledge Handbook on Contemporary Turkey. Routledge. 2021: 56 [15 February 2022]. ISBN 978-0-429-55906-8. （原始内容存档于5 April 2023） （英语）. In 1934 and 1955, the Thrace and Istanbul pogroms respectively, were state-sponsored attacks which were committed against non-Muslim populations as part of the Turkish government's plan to create a homogeneous Turkish nation during the post-Republican period.  引用错误：带有name属性“:0”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  9. ^ Katsoulas, Spyros. The United States and Greek–Turkish Relations: The Guardian's Dilemma. Routledge. 2021: 59 [30 May 2022]. ISBN 978-1-000-51433-9. （原始内容存档于30 May 2022） （英语）. In September 1955, the Turkish government orchestrated anti-Greek riots in Istanbul, amassing an angry mob for a pogrom that left tens of people dead, thousands of houses and shops destroyed, and an indelible mark on Greek–Turkish history. 
  10. ^ Benlisoy, Foti. Anti-Greek riots of September 1955 in Constantinople (Istanbul). Constantinople.ehw.gr. 2008 [8 September 2020]. （原始内容存档于22 April 2021）. There is a general consensus that the events broke out on the government’s initiative and they were organised in collaboration with the secret police 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Güven, Dilek. 6–7 Eylül Olayları (1). Radikal. 2005-09-06. （原始内容存档于2008-09-15） （土耳其语）.  引用错误：带有name属性“guven1”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  12. ^ de Zayas, Alfred. The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law. Genocide Studies and Prevention. August 2007, 2 (2): 138 [11 October 2015]. ISSN 1911-0359. （原始内容存档于19 May 2022）. 
  13. ^ Yaman, Ilker. The Istanbul Pogrom. We Love Istanbul. 2014-03-17 [8 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于7 October 2016）. 
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Tsilenisdemography-lab.prd.uth.gr 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期9 May 2021.
  15. ^ Kilic, Ecevit. Sermaye nasıl el değiştirdi?. Sabah. 2008-09-07 [2008-12-25]. （原始内容存档于12 March 2017） （土耳其语）. 6–7 Eylül olaylarından önce İstanbul'da 135 bin Rum yaşıyordu. Sonrasında bu sayı 70 bine düştü. 1978'e gelindiğinde bu rakam 7 bindi. 
  16. ^ Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey. Today's Zaman. 2008-12-15 [2008-12-15]. （原始内容存档于2010-05-01）. 
  17. ^ From "Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity" series of Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 2 July 2006. （原始内容存档于2006-07-07）. 
  18. ^ Kuyucu, Ali Tuna. Ethno-religious 'unmixing' of 'Turkey': 6–7 September riots as a case in Turkish nationalism. Nations and Nationalism. 2005, 11 (3): 361–380. doi:10.1111/j.1354-5078.2005.00209.x. 
  19. ^ Gurel, Meltem (编). Mid-Century Modernism in Turkey: Architecture Across Cultures in the 1950s and 1960s. Routledge. 2015: 64–65. ISBN 978-1317616375. 
  20. ^ Maglinis, Ilias K. Istanbul 1955: The anatomy of a pogrom. Kathimerini. 28 June 2005 [6 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于24 September 2016）. The rally got out of control and resulted in a «Kristallnacht» against Greeks in Istanbul. 
  21. ^ Zeynalov, Mahir. Mahir Zeynalov on Twitter. 5 September 2016 [6 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于27 September 2016）. Tomorrow is the 61st anniversary of Turkey's own Kristallnacht, in which Greeks, Armenians and Jews were attacked and lynched. 
  22. ^ Erdoğan'ın sözleri Atina'da yankı buldu [Erdogan's words echoed in Athens]. Sabah. 26 May 2009 [20 January 2020]. （原始内容存档于26 August 2021） （土耳其语）. Erdogan's words about the expulsion of people with different ethnic identities were covered in the Greek press with the headline "Prime Minister made self-criticism" 
  23. ^ Erdogan attacks the past, labels Kemalist ethnic cleansing Fascist. www.asianews.it. [2023-07-12]. （原始内容存档于12 July 2023） （英语）. 
  24. ^ Farklı kimliktekileri kovduk 'sözüne tepki. www.ntv.com.tr. [2022-01-15]. （原始内容存档于15 January 2022） （土耳其语）. 
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