跳转到内容

伊斯坦布尔大屠杀

维基百科，自由的百科全书


伊斯坦布尔大屠杀
位置土耳其伊斯坦布尔
坐标41°02′13″N 28°59′06″E / 41.0369°N 28.985°E / 41.0369; 28.985
日期1955年9月6-7日
目标私人财产、东正教教堂、城市中希腊裔居民的坟墓
类型暴乱
死亡详细数字未知，不同估计有从13人至37人或更多。[1][2]
受伤超过1000人受伤，[2] 大约200–400 希腊裔 妇女和男孩被强奸[2][3]
主谋战术动员组（英语：Tactical Mobilisation Group） (特种部队)、民主党（英语：Democrat Party (Turkey, historical)）、[4] 国家安全部（英语：National Security Service (Turkey)）、[5] 土耳其裔塞浦路斯协会(英语：Turkish Cyprus Association)[6]

伊斯坦布尔大屠杀，也称为伊斯坦布尔骚乱， [7] [3]是 1955 年 9 月 6 日至 7 日发生的一系列由政府支持的反希腊暴乱，主要针对伊斯坦布尔的希腊少数民族。 [8] [9]这场屠杀是由土耳其执政党民主党在各维安组织（战术动员组、反游击队和国家安全局）的协助下策划的。 [10]此次事件的导火线是土耳其驻希腊共和国马其顿塞萨洛尼基领事馆遭轰炸。 1881 年，穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔图尔克就出生在此处。 [11]这枚炸弹实际上是领事馆的一名土耳其接待员放置的，此人后来被捕并承认了罪行。土耳其媒体对逮捕事件保持沉默，反而暗示是希腊人引爆了炸弹。 [2]

这场大屠杀有时被描述为针对希腊人的种族灭绝，因为根据阿尔弗雷德·莫里斯·德扎亚斯 (Alfred-Maurice de Zayas) 的说法，尽管此暴乱死亡人数相对较少，但它“满足了 1948 年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》第 2 条的标准，因为明显存在‘全部或部分消灭’伊斯坦布尔希腊少数民族的意图，这场大屠杀是由土耳其总理阿德南·曼德列斯的政府策划的”，并且“由于这场大屠杀，希腊少数民族最终移出土耳其。” [2]

一群土耳其暴徒对伊斯坦布尔的希腊社区进行了长达九个小时的袭击，其中大部分成员事先被卡车运进城内。尽管暴徒没有明确要求杀害希腊人，但在袭击期间和之后，因殴打和纵火而死亡的人数有十多人。亚美尼亚人和犹太人在此暴乱中也受到了伤害。 [12]警方大多漠视此暴乱，暴力事件持续不断，直到政府宣布在伊斯坦布尔实施戒严，并调派军队镇压骚乱。 [13]此暴乱中总财物损失估计为5亿美元（相当于2024年的58.69亿美元），其中包括教堂被烧毁以及商店和私人住宅被毁造成的财物损失。 [2]

这场屠杀大大加速了希腊族移出土耳其，特别是在伊斯坦布尔的希腊裔。土耳其的希腊族人口从1927年的119,822 人[14]下降到 1978 年的约7,000 人[15]仅在伊斯坦布尔，讲希腊语的人口在 1955 年至 1960 年间从65,108人减少到49,081人。 [14]土耳其外交部2008 年公布的数据显示，希腊裔土耳其公民的数量为 3,000-4,000 人； [16]而根据人权观察组织在2006 年的统计，希腊裔土耳其公民的人数估计为2,500 人。 [17]

这些袭击被描述为奥斯曼帝国衰落后开始的土耳其化进程的延续， [8] [18] [19]因为被袭击的财产中约有 40% 属于其他少数民族。 [11]一些媒体将此次暴乱与1938年纳粹德国针对犹太人的水晶之夜暴乱进行了比较。 [20] [3] [21]

2009年，时任土耳其总理埃尔多安表示：“土耳其犯了错误，过去那些具有不同民族认同的少数群体被驱逐出我们的国家是法西斯政策的结果。” [22] [23] [24]

参考资料

[编辑]
  1. ^ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου (PDF). University of Thessaloniki: 29. [3 October 2011]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于26 January 2012）. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 de Zayas, Alfred. The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law. Genocide Studies and Prevention. August 2007, 2 (2): 137–154 [11 October 2015]. ISSN 1911-0359. （原始内容存档于19 May 2022）. The Septemvriana satisfies the criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the ‘‘intent to destroy in whole or in part’’ the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. Even if the number of deaths (estimated at thirty-seven) among members of the Greek community was relatively low, the result of the pogrom was the flight and emigration of the Greek minority of Istanbul, which once numbered some 100,000 and was subsequently reduced to a few thousand. The vast destruction of Greek property, businesses, and churches provides evidence of the Turkish authorities’ intent to terrorize the Greeks in Istanbul into abandoning the territory, thus eliminating the Greek minority. This practice falls within the ambit of the crime of ‘‘ethnic cleansing,’’ which the UN General Assembly and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia have interpreted as constituting a form of genocide... Besides the deaths, thousands were injured; some 200 Greek women were raped, and there are reports that Greek boys were raped as well. Many Greek men, including at least one priest, were subjected to forced circumcision. The riots were accompanied by enormous material damage, estimated by Greek authorities at US$500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. As a result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey.  引用错误：带有name属性“zayas”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Erdemir, Aykan. The Turkish Kristallnacht. Politico Europe. 7 September 2016 [6 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于20 October 2016）.  引用错误：带有name属性“Politico”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  4. ^ 引用错误：没有为名为Vryonis2005的参考文献提供内容
  5. ^ Birand, Mehmet Ali. "The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us," Turkish Daily News, 7 September 2005.
  6. ^ 引用错误：没有为名为guven3的参考文献提供内容
  7. ^ Also known in Greece as the September events (希腊语：Σεπτεμβριανά，罗马化：Septemvriana，直译：“Events of September”; 土耳其语：6–7 Eylül Olayları，直译：“Events of 6–7 September”), also referred to as the Turkish Kristallnacht
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Jongerden, Joost. The Routledge Handbook on Contemporary Turkey. Routledge. 2021: 56 [15 February 2022]. ISBN 978-0-429-55906-8. （原始内容存档于5 April 2023） （英语）. In 1934 and 1955, the Thrace and Istanbul pogroms respectively, were state-sponsored attacks which were committed against non-Muslim populations as part of the Turkish government's plan to create a homogeneous Turkish nation during the post-Republican period.  引用错误：带有name属性“:0”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  9. ^ Katsoulas, Spyros. The United States and Greek–Turkish Relations: The Guardian's Dilemma. Routledge. 2021: 59 [30 May 2022]. ISBN 978-1-000-51433-9. （原始内容存档于30 May 2022） （英语）. In September 1955, the Turkish government orchestrated anti-Greek riots in Istanbul, amassing an angry mob for a pogrom that left tens of people dead, thousands of houses and shops destroyed, and an indelible mark on Greek–Turkish history. 
  10. ^ Benlisoy, Foti. Anti-Greek riots of September 1955 in Constantinople (Istanbul). Constantinople.ehw.gr. 2008 [8 September 2020]. （原始内容存档于22 April 2021）. There is a general consensus that the events broke out on the government’s initiative and they were organised in collaboration with the secret police 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Güven, Dilek. 6–7 Eylül Olayları (1). Radikal. 2005-09-06. （原始内容存档于2008-09-15） （土耳其语）.  引用错误：带有name属性“guven1”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
  12. ^ de Zayas, Alfred. The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law. Genocide Studies and Prevention. August 2007, 2 (2): 138 [11 October 2015]. ISSN 1911-0359. （原始内容存档于19 May 2022）. 
  13. ^ Yaman, Ilker. The Istanbul Pogrom. We Love Istanbul. 2014-03-17 [8 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于7 October 2016）. 
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Tsilenisdemography-lab.prd.uth.gr 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期9 May 2021.
  15. ^ Kilic, Ecevit. Sermaye nasıl el değiştirdi?. Sabah. 2008-09-07 [2008-12-25]. （原始内容存档于12 March 2017） （土耳其语）. 6–7 Eylül olaylarından önce İstanbul'da 135 bin Rum yaşıyordu. Sonrasında bu sayı 70 bine düştü. 1978'e gelindiğinde bu rakam 7 bindi. 
  16. ^ Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey. Today's Zaman. 2008-12-15 [2008-12-15]. （原始内容存档于2010-05-01）. 
  17. ^ From "Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity" series of Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 2 July 2006. （原始内容存档于2006-07-07）. 
  18. ^ Kuyucu, Ali Tuna. Ethno-religious 'unmixing' of 'Turkey': 6–7 September riots as a case in Turkish nationalism. Nations and Nationalism. 2005, 11 (3): 361–380. doi:10.1111/j.1354-5078.2005.00209.x. 
  19. ^ Gurel, Meltem (编). Mid-Century Modernism in Turkey: Architecture Across Cultures in the 1950s and 1960s. Routledge. 2015: 64–65. ISBN 978-1317616375. 
  20. ^ Maglinis, Ilias K. Istanbul 1955: The anatomy of a pogrom. Kathimerini. 28 June 2005 [6 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于24 September 2016）. The rally got out of control and resulted in a «Kristallnacht» against Greeks in Istanbul. 
  21. ^ Zeynalov, Mahir. Mahir Zeynalov on Twitter. 5 September 2016 [6 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于27 September 2016）. Tomorrow is the 61st anniversary of Turkey's own Kristallnacht, in which Greeks, Armenians and Jews were attacked and lynched. 
  22. ^ Erdoğan'ın sözleri Atina'da yankı buldu [Erdogan's words echoed in Athens]. Sabah. 26 May 2009 [20 January 2020]. （原始内容存档于26 August 2021） （土耳其语）. Erdogan's words about the expulsion of people with different ethnic identities were covered in the Greek press with the headline "Prime Minister made self-criticism" 
  23. ^ Erdogan attacks the past, labels Kemalist ethnic cleansing Fascist. www.asianews.it. [2023-07-12]. （原始内容存档于12 July 2023） （英语）. 
  24. ^ Farklı kimliktekileri kovduk 'sözüne tepki. www.ntv.com.tr. [2022-01-15]. （原始内容存档于15 January 2022） （土耳其语）. 
检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=伊斯坦堡大屠殺&oldid=86972506”