次石墨
次石墨（英語：Shungite）是一種多樣的前寒武紀變質岩，這些岩石中都含有焦瀝青，要麼指這些岩石內部的焦瀝青[1]。它最早是在俄羅斯卡累利阿Shunga村附近的一座礦床中被發現，並因此得名。次石墨最廣為人知的是在偽科學和偽醫療上主張的用途，聲稱它具有從模糊的健康益處到阻擋 5G 輻射等各種特性。[2][3][4][5][6]
產生
[編輯]次石墨主要產於俄羅斯。主要礦床位於卡累利阿Shunga附近的奧涅加湖地區Zazhoginskoye，另一處礦床位於Vozhmozero。[7]在俄羅斯還報告了另外兩個規模更小的礦床，一個產生在堪察加半島的火山岩中，另一個位於車里雅賓斯克，由煤礦井的廢料在高溫下燃燒形成。[8]在奧地利、印度、剛果民主共和國[7]和哈薩克[9]也有發現。
描述
[編輯]「次石墨」（Shungite）一詞自 1879 年以來，含義已經發生巨大的演變。最初，它用於描述在其模式產地Shunga附近的礦脈中發現的一種含碳量超過98%的黑色物質。近年來，這個術語也被用來描述含有類似碳層的各種岩石，導致了一些混淆。在科學用語中，次石墨是指含碳量>98%的準礦物，並且作為母岩名稱的修飾詞，如「含次石墨白雲岩」。[10]在通俗用語中，含有次石墨的岩石有時本身也被稱為次石墨。
次石墨主要以兩種形式存在：分散於母岩中或作為明顯經過遷移的物質。遷移型的次石墨是具有光澤的，被認為是遷移的碳氫化合物，其形態包括層狀次石墨，即與母岩層基本平行的夾層，以及脈狀次石墨，即呈現為切穿母岩的礦脈。此外，次石墨也可能以碎屑形式存在於較年輕的沉積岩中。[10]
形成與結構
[編輯]
歷史上，人們一直認為次石墨是非生物成因石油形成的例子[11]，但現在已證實其生物起源[10]。在淺水碳酸鹽岩陸架至非海洋蒸發岩環境中形成的礦床上方，直接發現了非遷移型次石墨地層。含有次石墨的部分被認為是在活躍張裂期間沉積而成，與其中發現的鹼性火山岩一致。富含有機物的沉積物很可能是沉積在潟湖中。碳的濃度顯示生態生產力的提升，可能是由於火山物質提供了大量營養物質。
保留沉積結構的含次石墨沉積構造解釋為變質烴源岩。一些蘑菇狀結構被解釋為可能的泥火山。層狀與脈狀的次石墨種類，以及填滿空洞並形成角礫岩基質的次石墨，可解釋為遷移的石油，現以變質瀝青的形式存在。[10]固態瀝青次石墨主要為無定形的，但與許多碳沉積物類似，它含有微量碳的同素異形體，例如石墨烯片和富勒烯。[12]
用途和偽科學主張
[編輯]自18世紀中葉以來，次石墨就被用作油漆顏料，[10]目前以「碳黑」或「次石墨天然黑」的名稱出售。[8]1970年代，次石墨被用於生產一種名為Shungisite的絕緣材料。將低次石墨含量岩石加熱至1,090—1,130 °C（1,990—2,070 °F）製成，並用作低密度填料。[10]次石墨建築技術方面亦有應用。富勒烯的存在使得次石墨作為天然儲藏引起了研究人員的興趣，儘管與其他富碳岩石相比，次石墨中富勒烯的含量並非獨一無二。[13]
早在18世紀初，次石墨就一直被用於民間療法。彼得大帝在卡累利阿建立了俄羅斯第一個Spa中心，利用了次石墨據稱具有的淨水功效。他也提倡使用次石墨為俄羅斯軍隊提供純淨水。[14]水晶療法的支持者和5G陰謀論者錯誤地聲稱，與任何具有類似電導率的材料相比，次石墨可以更有效地消除周圍的5G輻射。[2][3][4][5][6]這些說法大多聚焦於次石墨中所含富勒烯的益處，但這些富勒烯的濃度為1-10 ppm。[15][7][16]儘管據稱次石墨有益於健康，但它含有鉛、鎘等有毒重金屬，當用作替代醫學時，可能會對健康造成危害。[17]
參見
[編輯]參考資料
[編輯]- ^ Jehlička, J.; Rouzaud, J.-N., Parnell, John; Kucha, Henryk; Landais, P. , 編, Transmission Electron Microscopy of Carbonaceous Matter in Precambrian Shungite from Karelia
, Bitumens in Ore Deposits, Special Publication of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer), 1993: 53–60 [2023-12-17], ISBN 978-3-642-85806-2, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-85806-2_4 （英語）
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Tiffany, Kaitlyn. Something in the Air. The Atlantic. 13 May 2020 [4 July 2020]. ISSN 1072-7825.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Koetsier, John. $350 '5G Bioshield' Radiation Protection Device Is A ... $6 USB Stick. Forbes.com. 28 May 2020 [27 May 2021].
Other recommendations from Glastonbury? People should use Shungite, a mineral which is said to have healing powers that one 'healing crystal' company says 'span the board from purity to protection'.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Bucci, Nino. Conspiracy theorists forced to apologise for calling Victorian youth leader a Covid 'crisis actor'. The Guardian. 30 October 2020 [27 May 2021].
Fernandez claims Facebook warned him his account would be restricted for posting misinformation to his page, which he also uses to promote cryptocurrency opportunities and sell shungite, a crystal which he claims prevents the effects of 5G.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Song, Victoria. 5G Conspiracy Theories Are Fueling an Entire Economy of Scammy Gadgets. Gizmodo. 3 March 2021 [27 May 2021].
Real shungite is 98% carbon, and has trace amounts of fullerenes, a type of carbon molecule that supposedly blocks electromagnetic frequencies. These pieces of jewelry or ornaments often have a much lower percentage of carbon than advertised and even lower amounts of fullerenes. There isn't much scientific evidence backing these claims, and researching shungite primarily brings up New Age-y articles spewing quackery, with no citations to actual studies or research. The 5G stickers supposedly generate some kind of shield to protect you from 5G waves. Let us be clear: A sticker that claims to generate any type of radiation-blocking shield is pure science fiction.
- ^ 6.0 6.1 McGowan, Michael. How the wellness and influencer crowd serve conspiracies to the masses. The Guardian. 24 February 2021 [27 May 2021].
[Fernandez] flits between long screeds about vaccinations and claims that Covid-19 is a hoax to selling products that he claims protect users from electromagnetic fields that conspiracy theorists believe are emitted by 5G towers. A shungite pyramid crystal will protect a radius of 'approximately 6-7 metres', his website claims.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Mindat.org. Shungite. [3 July 2012].
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Easthaugh, N.; Walsh V.; Chaplin T.; Siddall R. Pigment Compendium: A Dictionary and Optical Microscopy of Historic Pigments. Routledge. 2008: 345 [2 July 2012]. ISBN 9780750689809.
- ^ Efremova, S.V. Water treatment with a shungite sorbent and biosorbents on its base. Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry. 2006, 79 (3): 397–402 [11 September 2020]. S2CID 92934431. doi:10.1134/s1070427206030128.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Melezhik, V.A.; Filippov M.M.; Romashkin A.E. A giant Palaeoproterozoic deposit of shungite in NW Russia: genesis and practical applications. Ore Geology Reviews (Elsevier). 2004, 24 (1–2): 135–154. Bibcode:2004OGRv...24..135M. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2003.08.003.
- ^ Mastarlez, M.; Glikson M.; Stankiewicz B.A.; Volkova I.B.; Bustin R.M. Organic and mineral matter in a Precambrian shungite from Karelia, Russia. Glikson M. & Mastarlez M. (編). Organic Matter and Mineralisation: Thermal Alteration, Hydrocarbon Generation, and Role in Metallogenesis. Springer. 2000: 102–116 [7 July 2012]. ISBN 9780412733307.
- ^ Golubev, Y.A.; Antonets, I.V. Electrophysical Properties and Structure of Natural Disordered sp2 Carbon. Nanomaterials. 2022, 12 (21): 3797. PMC 9657770
. PMID 36364573. doi:10.3390/nano12213797 .
- ^ Sajo, Ma Easter Joy; Kim, Cheol-Su; Kim, Soo-Ki; Shim, Kwang Yong; Kang, Tae-Young; Lee, Kyu-Jae. Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Shungite against Ultraviolet B Irradiation-Induced Skin Damage in Hairless Mice. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2017-08-13, 2017: e7340143. ISSN 1942-0900. PMC 5574306 . PMID 28894510. doi:10.1155/2017/7340143 .
- ^ Volfson, IF; Farrakhov EG; Pronin AP; Beiseyev OB; Beiseyev AO; et al. Medical Geology in Russia and NIS. Selinus O.; Finkelman R.B.; Centeno J.A. (編). Medical Geology: A Regional Synthesis. Springer. 2011: 223 [7 July 2012]. ISBN 9789048134298.
- ^ Sajo, Ma. Easter Joy; Kim, Cheol-Su; Kim, Soo-Ki; Shim, Kwang Yong; Kang, Tae-Young; Lee, Kyu-Jae. Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Shungite against Ultraviolet B Irradiation-Induced Skin Damage in Hairless Mice. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2017, 2017: 1–11. ISSN 1942-0900. PMC 5574306 . PMID 28894510. doi:10.1155/2017/7340143 .
- ^ Reznikov, V.A.; PolekhovskiÏ. Amorphous shungite carbon: A natural medium for the formation of fullerenes (PDF). Technical Physics Letters. 8. 6 March 2000, 26 (2000): 689–693 [9 January 2013]. Bibcode:2000TePhL..26..689R. S2CID 51999111. doi:10.1134/1.1307814.
- ^ Jurgelane, Inga; Locs, Janis. Shungite application for treatment of drinking water – is it the right choice?. Journal of Water and Health. 2020-11-25, 19 (1): 89–96. ISSN 1477-8920. doi:10.2166/wh.2020.139 .
