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使用者:Fridiy/Sandbox2

維基百科，自由的百科全書
波利尼西亞雙體船的複製品（2009年攝於檀香山）
夏威夷人駕駛雙體獨木舟

波利尼西亞人的航海技術，已被使用數千年，這些技術使得波利尼西亞人能夠在太平洋上進行跨越數千公里的長途航行。波利尼西亞人駕駛着支腿獨木舟（英語：Outrigger boat）或雙體獨木舟[註 1]，幾乎與波利尼西亞三角內的每一座島嶼建立了聯繫[1]。除了運用口述傳統代代相傳的大量知識外，波利尼西亞的航海者還會使用包括觀星、觀鳥在內的航行技術[2][3][4][5]。除此之外，他們跳島式的航行方式是為了應對太平洋上島嶼資源稀缺的問題。當某座島嶼上的資源，如食物、木材、水和土地，逐漸匱乏時，島民便會運用航海技術前往新的島嶼。然而，隨着南太平洋上越來越多的島嶼被人類占據，以及國籍和國界變得愈發重要，這種遷徙方式逐漸變得不可行。於是，人們便被困在資源緊缺的島嶼上[6][7][8]。

航海者通過使用航海技術以及由師傅口授給徒弟的知識（通常以歌曲的形式傳承下來）前往一些小島。通常，每個島嶼都會設有一個行會，其成員擁有很高的社會地位；在饑荒或苦難時期，他們可以進行交易以獲取援助，或將人們撤離到鄰近島嶼上。截止至2014年，人們仍然在波利尼西亞域外點的陶馬科島（英語：Taumako）上教授着這些傳統的航行方法。同時，這些知識也被整個太平洋的航海社團傳授。

無論是導航技術還是獨木舟的建造方式在過去都被視為秘密，然而現代在復興這些技藝時，它們正在被記錄下來並被公開發表。

歷史

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參見：古夏威夷（英語：Ancient Hawaii）、夏威夷歷史和密克羅尼西亞人的航海（英語：Micronesian navigation）
波利尼西亞三角

公元前約3000年至公元前約1000年之間，很可能起源於台灣的南島人[註 2]開始向東南亞擴散[9]。隨後，他們經過菲律賓和印度尼西亞，進入密克羅尼西亞西部的邊緣地帶，並擴張至美拉尼西亞。通過基因學的研究，科學家發現這一擴張過程留下了清晰的痕跡，使得可以追蹤他們的遷徙路徑並大致確定時間[10][11]。

公元前2世紀中葉，一種獨特的文化突然出現在了美拉尼西亞西北部的俾斯麥群島上，該群島呈弧形分布，從新不列顛島一直延伸至阿德默勒爾蒂群島。這種文化被稱為拉皮塔文化，在美拉尼西亞的考古記錄中尤為顯著，其特徵之一是沿海建有大型永久性村落。除此之外，拉皮塔文化最具代表性的是其製陶技藝，其中包括大量形態各異的器皿，一些陶器的表面還刻有精美的圖案。公元前大約1300年至公元前大約900年之間，拉皮塔文化從俾斯麥群島向東擴張了約6000公里，最終到達湯加和薩摩亞[12]。拉皮塔陶器在傳入西波利尼西亞後，如薩摩亞、湯加和斐濟等地，仍被持續使用了多年，但由於粘土資源匱乏，最終消失在了大部分波利尼西亞地區上[13]。儘管陶器製造未能傳播到西波利尼西亞以外的地區，但在波利尼西亞中部的考古發掘中仍有陶器材料出土，研究認為這些陶器是通過貿易傳入的[14]。

根據波利尼西亞人的口述傳統[註 3]，他們的航行路徑被類比成一隻章魚，其頭部位於法屬波利尼西亞的賴阿特阿島，觸鬚則向太平洋各處延伸[17]。在口述傳統中，這隻章魚有着不同的名字，如：Taumata-Fe’e-Fa’atupu-Hau（繁榮大章魚）、Tumu-Ra’i-Fenua（天地之始）以及Te Wheke-a-Muturangi（英語：Te Wheke-a-Muturangi）（穆圖朗伊（英語：Muturangi）章魚）。

波利尼西亞東部和中部各群島被發現和定居的具體時間，考古學界仍存在着激烈的爭論。然而，普遍接受的時間認為，波利尼西亞人在公元1000年之前開始在庫克群島定居[18]。從這一點開始，波利尼西亞人開始向四面八方航行，他們首先定居於東波利尼西亞（包括社會群島和馬克薩斯群島），隨後更是到達了更偏遠的地區，如夏威夷、復活節島及新西蘭[19]。除此之外，他們也在薩摩亞北部的圖瓦盧環礁定居，圖瓦盧也成為在美拉尼西亞及密克羅尼西亞建立波利尼西亞域外點的跳板[20][21][22] 。復活節島的原住民可能起源於芒阿雷瓦島。他們通過觀察烏燕鷗的飛行路線發現了該島。當第一位到訪該島的歐洲人——雅各布·羅赫芬登陸復活節島時，他沒有發現任何航行的跡象。相反，他注意到島上樹木稀少，不足以建造獨木舟，而當地人使用的木筏也不適合航海[23]。

航海技術

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波利尼西亞人的航海非常依賴於持續的觀察以及記憶，航海者需要記住他們從何方而來以確定他們自己目前的位置。太陽是這些航海者的主要嚮導之一，因為他們可以根據日出日落的準確方位來確定方向。日落後他們則會轉而依靠星星來導航，當夜晚多雲，或者在白天無法無法看到星星時，航海者也會依靠風向和海浪來作為指引[24]。

持續的觀察能使航海者察覺到獨木舟速度與航向的變化。因此，波利尼西亞人會觀測多個方面，包括星星、洋流、波浪、能夠指示島嶼方向的生物螢光現象、由島嶼和環礁引起的海-氣相互作用、鳥類飛行、風向以及天氣等[25][26]。

觀鳥

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Certain seabirds such as the white tern and noddy tern fly out to sea in the morning to hunt fish, then return to land at night. Navigators seeking land sail opposite the birds' path in the morning and with them at night, especially relying on large groups of birds, and keeping in mind changes during nesting season.[27]

Harold Gatty suggested that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the seasonal paths of bird migrations. In The Raft Book,[28] a survival guide he wrote for the U.S. military during World War II, Gatty outlined various Polynesian navigation techniques for shipwrecked sailors or aviators to find land. There are some references in their oral traditions to the flight of birds, and Gatty claimed that departing voyages used onshore range marks pointing to distant islands in line with their flight paths.[29]:6 A voyage from Tahiti, the Tuamotus or the Cook Islands to New Zealand might have followed the migration of the long-tailed cuckoo (Eudynamys taitensis),[5] just as a voyage from Tahiti to Hawaiʻi would coincide with the track of the Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva) and the bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis).

It is also believed that Polynesians, like many seafaring peoples, kept shore-sighting birds. One theory is that voyagers took a frigatebird (Fregata) with them. This bird's feathers become drenched and useless if it lands on water, so voyagers would release it when they thought they were close to land, and would follow it if it did not return to the canoe.[25]

觀星

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Star compass of Mau Piailug taught in the Caroline Islands, with North at top. Re-creation with shells on sand, with Satawalese (Chuukic) text labels, from the Polynesian Voyaging Society.[30] See annotations on Commons.

The positions of the stars helped guide Polynesian voyages. Stars, as opposed to planets, hold fixed celestial positions year-round, changing only their rising time with the seasons. Each star has a specific declination, and can give a bearing for navigation as it rises or sets. Polynesian voyagers would set a heading by a star near the horizon, switching to a new one once the first rose too high. A specific sequence of stars would be memorized for each route.[5][31][27] The Polynesians also took measurements of stellar elevation to determine their latitude. The latitudes of specific islands were also known, and the technique of "sailing down the latitude" was used.[5][31] That is, Polynesians navigated by the stars through knowledge of when particular stars, as they rotated through the night sky, would pass over the island to which the voyagers were sailing. Also knowledge that the movement of stars over different islands followed a similar pattern (that is, all the islands had a similar relationship to the night sky) provided the navigators with a sense of latitude, so that they could sail with the prevailing wind, before turning east or west to reach the island that was their destination.[4]

Some star compass systems specify as many as 150 stars with known bearings, though most systems have only a few dozen (illustration at right).[5][31][32][33] The development of sidereal compasses has been studied[34] and hypothesized to have developed from an ancient pelorus instrument.[25]

長浪

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The Polynesians also used wave and swell formations to navigate. Many of the habitable areas of the Pacific Ocean are groups of islands (or atolls) in chains hundreds of kilometres long. Island chains have predictable effects on waves and currents. Navigators who lived within a group of islands would learn the effect various islands had on the swell shape, direction, and motion, and would have been able to correct their path accordingly. Even when they arrived in the vicinity of an unfamiliar chain of islands, they may have been able to detect signs similar to those of their home.[5]

Once they had arrived fairly close to a destination island, they would have been able to pinpoint its location by sightings of land-based birds, certain cloud formations, as well as the reflections of shallow water made on the undersides of clouds. It is thought that the Polynesian navigators may have measured sailing time between islands in "canoe-days".[25]

The energy transferred from the wind to the sea produces wind waves. The waves that are created when the energy travels down away from the source area (like ripples) are known as swell. When the winds are strong at the source area, the swell is larger. The longer the wind blows, the longer the swell lasts. Because the swells of the ocean can remain consistent for days, navigators relied on them to carry their canoe in a straight line from one house (or point) on the star compass to the opposite house of the same name. Navigators were not always able to see stars; because of this, they relied on the swells of the ocean. Swell patterns are a much more reliable method of navigation than waves, which are determined by the local winds.[5][31] Swells move in a straight direction which makes it easier for the navigator to determine whether the canoe is heading in the correct direction.[35]

雲朵、雲的反射及天空顏色

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Polynesian navigators could identify the clouds that resulted from the white sand of coral atolls reflecting heat into the sky. Subtle differences in the colour of the sky also could be recognised as resulting from the presence of lagoons or shallow waters, as deep water was a poor reflector of light while the lighter colour of the water of lagoons and shallow waters could be identified in the reflection in the sky.[5]

In Eastern Polynesia, navigators sailing from Tahiti to the Tuamotus would sail directly east towards Anaa atoll, which has a shallow lagoon that reflects a faint green colour on to the clouds above the atoll. If the navigator drifted off their course, they could correct their course when they sighted the reflection of the lagoon in the clouds in the distance.[36]

Te lapa

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主條目：Te lapa（英語：Te lapa）

大衛·劉易斯博士（英語：David Lewis (adventurer)）及瑪麗安·喬治（Marianne George）是最早一批記錄一種尚未被科學解釋的光現象的學者。Te lapa是一種直線形閃光，出現在水面上或水面下不遠處，其光源來自島嶼。波利尼西亞人利用這種現象在海上重新定向，或尋找新的島嶼[37]。

導航儀器

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目前尚無證據表明波利尼西亞航海者在船上使用過導航儀器。然而，馬紹爾群島的密克羅尼西亞人有在岸上使用木枝航海圖（英語：Marshall Islands stick chart）[38]的傳統，這是一種用於表示島嶼位置及其周圍海洋狀況的空間海圖。密克羅尼西亞航海者會通過將椰子葉的葉脈固定在方形框架上來製作這種圖表，其中葉脈的彎曲和交匯點表示盛行風和海浪被島嶼阻擋所引起的波浪運動[5][31]。

與其他航海者的比較

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When European navigators first learnt of the navigational skills of Polynesians, they compared them to their own methods, which relied on, among other things, the compass, charts, astronomical tables, the sextant (or an earlier instrument with the same role) and, in later phases of European exploration, chronometers. The interest shown by European navigators, such as James Cook and Andia y Varela was heightened by their lack of knowledge of environmental navigation techniques used by their European predecessors. Non-instrumental-based navigation had been carried out in many parts of the world, having occurred in the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean and the European Atlantic. The details of these techniques varied to suit the latitude and the usual weather patterns. One such difference is that the zone in which most Polynesian voyaging was carried out was within 20° of the equator, so rising and setting stars did so at an angle that was close to vertical relative to the horizon. This is helpful to the technique of marking directions with the rising and setting points of identified stars.[39]:184–185

航行範圍

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Tupaia's chart of Polynesia within 3200km of Ra'iatea. 1769, preserved in the British Museum.

On his first voyage of Pacific exploration, Captain James Cook had the services of a Polynesian navigator, Tupaia, who drew a chart of the islands within a 2,000英里（3,200公里） radius (to the north and west) of his home island of Ra'iatea.[40] Tupaia had knowledge of 130 islands and named 74 on his chart.[41] Tupaia had navigated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. He had not visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfather's time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans had diminished to the islands of eastern Polynesia. His grandfather and father had passed to Tupaia the knowledge as to the location of the major islands of western Polynesia and the navigation information necessary to voyage to Fiji, Samoa and Tonga.[40][42] Tupaia was hired by Joseph Banks, the ship's naturalist, who wrote that Cook ignored Tupaia's chart and downplayed his skills as a navigator.[43]

然而，庫克船長在1778年2月以讚許的語氣記錄了他對波利尼西亞人在太平洋地區遷徙與定居的看法[44]：

How shall we account for this nation's having spread itself, in so many detached islands, so widely disjoined from each other in every quarter of the Pacific Ocean? We find it, from New Zealand, in the South, as far as the Sandwich Islands (Hawaiʻi), to the North, and, in another direction, from Easter Island, to the Hebrides (Vanuatu); that is, over an extent of sixty degrees of latitude, or twelve hundred leagues north and south, and eighty-three degrees of longitude, or sixteen hundred and sixty leagues east and west! How much farther in either direction its colonies reach is not known; but what we know already; in consequence of this and our former voyage, warrants our pronouncing it to be, though perhaps not the most numerous, certainly by far the most extensive, nation upon earth.

亞南極及南極

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南極洲及其周邊島嶼示意圖，圖中可見位於新西蘭正南方、畫面下方中央位置的奧克蘭群島。

關於波利尼西亞人向南方擴張的最遠範圍，學術界仍存在爭議。

The islands of New Zealand, along with a series of outlying islands, have been labelled 'South Polynesia' by New Zealand archaeologist Atholl Anderson.[45] These islands include the Kermadec Islands, the Chatham Islands, the Auckland Islands and Norfolk Island. In each of these islands there is radiocarbon dating evidence of visits from Polynesians by 1500.[45] The material evidence of Polynesian visits to at least one of the subantarctic islands to the south of New Zealand consists of the remains of a settlement. This evidence from Enderby Island in the Auckland Islands has been radiocarbon dated back to the 13th Century.[46][47][48][49][50] Absence of remains further south than Enderby Island may imply there was a 2000 kilometer boundary around Antarctica that Polynesian peoples may not have crossed.[50]

Descriptions of a shard of early Polynesian pottery buried on the Antipodes Islands[51] are unsubstantiated, and the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, where it was supposedly stored, has stated that "The Museum has not been able to locate such a shard in its collection, and the original reference to the object in the Museum's collection documentation indicates no reference to Polynesian influences."[52]

Oral history describes Ui-te-Rangiora, around the year 650, leading a fleet of Waka Tīwai south until they reached, "a place of bitter cold where rock-like structures rose from a solid sea".[53] The brief description might match the Ross Ice Shelf or possibly the Antarctic mainland,[54] but may be a description of icebergs surrounded by sea ice found in the Southern Ocean.[55][56] The account also describes snow.

哥倫布時代前與美洲的接觸

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主條目：哥倫布時代前的跨大洋接觸

In the mid-20th century, Thor Heyerdahl proposed a new theory of Polynesian origins (one which did not win general acceptance), arguing that the Polynesians had migrated from South America on balsa-log boats.[57][58]

The presence in the Cook Islands of sweet potatoes, a plant native to the Americas (called kūmara in Māori), which have been radiocarbon-dated to 1000 CE, has been cited as evidence that Native Americans could have traveled to Oceania. The current thinking is that sweet potato was brought to central Polynesia circa 700 CE and spread across Polynesia from there, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back.[59] An alternative explanation posits biological dispersal; plants and/or seeds could float across the Pacific without any human contact.[60]

A 2007 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences examined chicken bones at El Arenal, Chile, near the Arauco Peninsula. The results suggested Oceania-to-America contact. The domestication of chickens originated in southern Asia, whereas the Araucana breed of Chile is thought to have been introduced to the Americas by Spaniards around 1500. The bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, prior to the documented arrival of the Spanish. DNA sequences taken were exact matches to the sequences of chickens from the same period in American Samoa and Tonga, both over 5000 miles (8000 kilometers) away from Chile. The genetic sequences were also similar to those found in Hawaiʻi and Easter Island, the closest Polynesian island, at only 2500 miles (4000 kilometers). The sequences did not match any breed of European chicken.[61][62][63]Although this initial report suggested a Polynesian pre-Columbian origin, a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:[64]

A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.

However, in a later study, the original authors extended and elaborated their findings, concluding:[65]

This comprehensive approach demonstrates that the examination of modern chicken DNA sequences does not contribute to our understanding of the origins of Chile's earliest chickens. Interpretations based on poorly sourced and documented modern chicken populations, divorced from the archeological and historical evidence, do not withstand scrutiny. Instead, this expanded account will confirm the pre-Columbian age of the El Arenal remains and lend support to our original hypothesis that their appearance in South America is most likely due to Polynesian contact with the Americas in prehistory.

In 2005, a linguist and an archeologist proposed a theory of contact between Hawaiians and the Chumash people of Southern California between 400 and 800 CE. The sewn-plank canoes crafted by the Chumash and neighboring Tongva are unique among the indigenous peoples of North America, but similar in design to larger canoes used by Polynesians and Melanesians for deep-sea voyages. Tomolo'o, the Chumash word for such a craft, may derive from tumula'au/kumula'au, the Hawaiian term for the logs from which shipwrights carve planks to be sewn into canoes.[66][67] The analogous Tongva term, tii'at, is unrelated. If it occurred, this contact left no genetic legacy in California or Hawaii. This theory has attracted limited media attention within California, but most archaeologists of the Tongva and Chumash cultures reject it on the grounds that the independent development of the sewn-plank canoe over several centuries is well-represented in the material record.[68][69][70]

Polynesian contact with the prehispanic Mapuche culture in central-south Chile has been suggested because of apparently similar cultural traits, including words like toki (stone axes and adzes), hand clubs similar to the Māori wahaika, the dalca –a sewn-plank canoe as used on Chiloe Archipelago, the curanto earth oven (Polynesian umu) common in southern Chile, fishing techniques such as stone wall enclosures, palín –a hockey-like game– and other potential parallels.[71][72] Some strong westerlies and El Niño wind blow directly from central-east Polynesia to the Mapuche region, between Concepción and Chiloe. A direct connection from New Zealand is possible, sailing with the Roaring Forties. In 1834, some escapees from Tasmania arrived at Chiloe Island after sailing for 43 days.[72][73]

A Mangarevan legend tells of Anua Matua who sailed in south-west direction reaching southernmost South America.[71]

Post-colonial research history

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Navigator Mau Piailug (1932–2010) of Satawal island, Micronesia

Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of navigation was widely lost after contact with and colonization by Europeans. This caused debates over the reasons for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and scattered parts of the Pacific. According to Andrew Sharp, the explorer Captain James Cook, already familiar with Charles de Brosses's accounts of large groups of Pacific islanders who were driven off course in storms and ended up hundreds of miles away with no idea where they were, encountered in the course of one of his own voyages a castaway group of Tahitians who had become lost at sea in a gale and blown 1000 miles away to the island of Atiu. Cook wrote that this incident "will serve to explain, better than the thousand conjectures of speculative reasoners, how the detached parts of the earth, and, in particular, how the South Seas, may have been peopled".[74]

By the late 19th century to the early 20th century, a more generous view of Polynesian navigation had come into favor, creating a much romanticized view of their seamanship, canoes, and navigational expertise. Late 19th- and early 20th-century writers such as Abraham Fornander and Percy Smith told of heroic Polynesians migrating in great coordinated fleets from Asia far and wide into present-day Polynesia.[58]

Another view was presented by Andrew Sharp, who challenged the "heroic vision" hypothesis, asserting instead that Polynesian maritime expertise was severely limited in the field of exploration, and that as a result, the settlement of Polynesia had been the result of luck, random island sightings, and drifting, rather than as organized voyages of colonization. Thereafter, the oral knowledge passed down for generations allowed for eventual mastery of traveling between known locations.[75] Sharp's reassessment caused a huge amount of controversy and led to a stalemate between the romantic and the skeptical views.[58]

Re-creation of voyages

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Marumaru Atua in Rarotonga, 2010.

In the 1960s David Lewis sailed his catamaran from Tahiti to New Zealand, via Rarotonga using stellar navigation without instruments.[76] Lewis sought out navigators of the Caroline Islands, Santa Cruz Islands and Tonga to confirm that traditional techniques had been retained by navigators from Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia. Voyages on his ketch Isbjorn included: Tevake navigating between the Santa Cruz Islands; and Hipour of Puluwat navigating in the Caroline Islands; and also conversations with Fe'iloakitau Kaho, Ve'ehala and Kaloni Kienga from Tonga; Temi Rewi of Beru and Iotiabata Ata of Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands; and Yaleilei of Satawal in the Caroline Islands.[77] He wrote We the Navigators in 1972 about his experiences, the title a play on the classic We the Tikopia by New Zealand anthropologist Raymond Firth, about the island of that name, whose inhabitants were gifted navigators.

Ethnographic research in the Caroline Islands in Micronesia brought to light the fact that traditional stellar navigational methods were still very much in everyday use there. The building and testing of proa canoes (wa) inspired by traditional designs, the harnessing of knowledge from skilled Micronesians, as well as voyages using stellar navigation, allowed practical conclusions about the seaworthiness and handling capabilities of traditional Polynesian canoes and allowed a better understanding of the navigational methods that were likely to have been used by the Polynesians and of how they, as people, were adapted to seafaring.[78]

Anthropologist and historian Ben Finney built Nalehia, a 40-英尺（12-公尺） replica of a Hawaiian double canoe. Finney tested the canoe in a series of sailing and paddling experiments in Hawaiian waters. In 1973, he established the Polynesian Voyaging Society to test the contentious question of how Polynesians found their islands. The team claimed to be able to replicate ancient Hawaiian double-hulled canoes capable of sailing across the ocean using strictly traditional voyaging techniques.[79]

In 1978, the Hōkūleʻa was capsized en route to Tahiti. Eddie Aikau, a world champion surfer, and part of the crew, attempted to paddle his surfboard to the nearest island to find help. He was never seen again, but the crew was rescued.[80]

In 1980, a Hawaiian named Nainoa Thompson invented a new method of non-instrument navigation (called the "modern Hawaiian wayfinding system"), enabling him to complete the voyage from Hawaiʻi to Tahiti and back. In 1987, Matahi Whakataka-Brightwell and his mentor Francis Cowan sailed from Tahiti to New Zealand without instruments in the waka Hawaiki-nui.[81]

In New Zealand, a leading Māori navigator and ship builder was Hector Busby, who was also inspired and influenced by Nainoa Thompson and Hokulea's voyage there in 1985.[82]

In 2008, the Lapita expedition sailed two catamarans from their construction in the Philippines to Tikopia and Anuta, Polynesian outliers of the Solomon Islands. British-based catamaran designers Hanneke Boon and James Wharram closely followed the hull shape of the traditional Tikopia craft,[83] as represented by Rakeitonga, a 9 m outrigger canoe acquired by the Auckland Museum in 1916.[84] The expedition used Polynesian navigation to sail along the coast of Northern New Guinea and then sailed 150 miles to an island for which they had modern charts, proving that it is possible to sail a modern catamaran along the path of the Lapita Pacific migration.[85] The 'Lapita Tikopia' and its sistership 'Lapita Anuta' took five months to sail to the islands, following the ancient migration route of the Lapita people into the Pacific. This voyage of maritime archaeology culminated in the gift of these boats to the islanders, with the intention of ending " an era of being cut off from the surrounding islands and their extended family connections" and allowing deep-sea fishing once more.[86] Unlike many other modern Polynesian "replica" voyages, the Wharram catamarans were at no point towed or escorted by a modern vessel with modern GPS navigation system, nor were they fitted with a motor.

In 2010, O Tahiti Nui Freedom, an outrigger sailing canoe, retraced the path of the Polynesian migration by sailing from Tahiti to China via the Cook Islands, Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, Solomons, Papua New Guinea, Palau, and the Philippines in 123 days.[87]

In 2013, a modern, non-instrument voyage was launched called Mālama Honua. It traveled across the world leaving Hilo, Hawaii, initially. This was not a re-creation of a known historical voyage. The spirit of the voyage was to spread the message of conservation. In fact, "mālama honua" means, roughly, to care for Earth, in Hawaiian. The journey was made on two vessels: the Hōkūle'a and the Hikianalia. Nainoa Thompson was on the crew.[88]

注釋

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  1. ^ 雙體獨木舟由兩個長度相等的大船體並排綑紮而成，中間的空間可用於在進行長途航行時儲存食物、狩獵工具及漁網。
  2. ^ 他們的祖先被認為在大約8000年前從中國大陸南部遷徙而來
  3. ^ 考古研究支持了口述傳統所記載的內容，包括波利尼西亞人的定居時間及起源[15][16]。

參見

[編輯]

參考

[編輯]
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來源

[編輯]
  • Bellwood, Peter. The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People. Thames and Hudson. 1987: 45–65. ISBN 978-0-500-27450-7. 
  • Crowe, Andrew. Pathway of the Birds: The Voyaging Achievements of the Maori and Their Polynesian Ancestors. David Bateman Ltd. 2018. ISBN 978-1-86953-961-0. 
  • Downes, Lawrence, Star Man, New York Times, 2010-07-16 .
  • Finney, Ben R, New, Non-Armchair Research, Finney, Ben R (編), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society, 1963 .
  • Finney, Ben R (編), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society, 1976 .
  • Gatty, Harold, The Raft Book: Lore of Sea and Sky, U.S. Air Force, 1943 .
  • Gatty, Harold, Finding Your Way Without Map or Compass, Dover Publications, 1958, ISBN 978-0-486-40613-8 .
  • King, Michael, History of New Zealand, Penguin Books, 2003, ISBN 978-0-14-301867-4 .
  • Lewis, David, A Return Voyage Between Puluwat and Saipan Using Micronesian Navigational Techniques, Finney, Ben R (編), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society, 1963 .
  • Lewis, David, We the Navigators: The Ancient art of Landfinding in the Pacific, University of Hawaii Press, 1994 .
  • Lusby, et al. (2009/2010) "Navigation and Discovery in the Polynesian Oceanic Empire" Hydrographic Journal Nos. 131, 132, 134.
  • Sharp, Andrew, Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia, Longman Paul Ltd., 1963 .
  • O'Connor, M.R. Wayfinding: The Science and Mystery of How Humans Navigate the World. St. Martin's Press. 2019. ISBN 978-1-250-09696-8. .
  • Sutton, Douglas G. (編), The Origins of the First New Zealanders, Auckland University Press, 1994 .

外部連結

[編輯]
取自「https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Fridiy/Sandbox2&oldid=87332315」