同行評審

同行評審(英語:peer review,在部分學術領域亦稱 refereeing;又譯作同行評議、同儕評閱、同儕審查),是一種由具備相似專業能力的同行(同儕)對作品或成果進行評估的過程。[1][2]它作為一種行業內部自我監管機制,旨在維護專業標準、提升成果品質,並增強成果的可信度。[3][4]
同行評審廣泛應用於學術界及各類專業領域。[5][6]例如,在學術界,學術同行評審通常用於評估學術論文是否達到發表標準;在醫學、工程學等領域,也存在各自的同行評審機制(如醫學同行評審)。[7][8]
此外,同行評審亦可作為教學工具,幫助學生改進寫作質量。[9][10]
同行評審制度的歷史可追溯至17世紀,亨利·奧爾登堡(Henry Oldenburg,1619-1677)被認為是現代科學同行評審制度的奠基人。[11][12][13]此制度在隨後幾個世紀逐漸發展完善,《自然》雜誌自1973年起將其確立為標準實踐。術語 "peer review" 則自1970年代初起被廣泛採用。[14][15]
2017年,莫斯科高等經濟學院豎立了一座紀念同行評審制度的雕像。[16][17]
專業領域
[編輯]專業領域的同行評審側重於評估專業人士的工作表現,旨在提升質量、維護標準,或為認證提供依據。在學術界,同行評審常用於評估教職人員的晉升與終身教職資格。[18][19]
一種早期的專業同行評審原型可見於《醫師倫理》(Ethics of the Physician),由伊斯哈克·本·阿里·魯哈維(Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī,854-931)撰寫。他建議,醫生每次探訪病患時應留存病情記錄,病患康復或去世後,醫師的記錄須由當地醫務委員會審核,以判斷治療是否符合醫療標準。[20][21]
在醫療保健領域,專業同行評審極為常見,通常稱為臨床同行評審。[22][23]此外,同行評審亦細分為醫師同行評審、護理同行評審、牙科同行評審等。[24][25]
許多其他專業領域亦採用同行評審機制,如:會計學[26][27]、法律[28][29][30]、工程學(如軟件同行評審、技術同行評審)、航空業,乃至森林火災管理領域。[31][32]
在教育領域,同行評審常被用作促進學習的工具,尤其能幫助實現布盧姆教育目標分類學中認知與情感領域的高階學習目標。形式包括模擬學術出版中的同行評審流程。[33][34][35]
學術領域
[編輯]在學術出版中,同行評審(又稱學術同行評審)是評估學術論文、研究提案和專著是否達到發表標準的重要程序。[36][37]此過程通常由與作者具備同等或更高專業能力的研究者匿名進行評議,[38][39]旨在確保研究的質量、原創性與可靠性。[40][41]
醫學領域
[編輯]- 臨床同行評審:評估患者護理經歷的過程,是持續專業實踐評估與針對性專業實踐評估的重要組成部分,亦有助於醫療人員的認證及特許執業。[44][45]
- 醫師與護士的臨床教學技能評審。[46][47]
- 學術期刊文章的科學同行評審。[48][49]
- 針對醫學期刊已發表文章的臨床價值開展的二次同行評審。[50][51]
此外,美國醫學會亦將「醫學同行評審」一詞用於指代改進醫療機構質量與安全的過程,或評價臨床行為是否符合專業協會標準。[52][53]
醫學界普遍認為同行評審是確保學術出版可信性及臨床療法安全有效的最佳途徑。[54][55]但「醫學同行評審」一詞尚缺乏統一標準,在數據庫檢索中表現不一。[56][57]
技術領域
[編輯]在工程學領域,技術同行評審是一種標準化的評審程序,旨在由同領域專家組成的小組對產品或項目進行缺陷識別和修正。[58][59]評審小組成員一般不超過六人,涵蓋產品全生命周期內相關階段,通常在開發階段或階段性里程碑之間進行。[60][61]
政府政策
[編輯]自1999年起,歐盟在開放協調法(Open Method of Co-ordination)中運用同行評審,推進積極勞動力市場政策的發展。[62][63]2004年起,歐盟又在社會包容政策領域推行同行評審機制。[64][65]
該類評審活動每年組織約八次,由一個「主辦國」開放某項政策或舉措,邀請約六個「評審國」及相關歐洲層級的非政府組織(NGO)參與評審。評審會議通常為期兩天,期間還包括實地考察相關政策的實施情況。會前,專家撰寫評審報告,各參與國提交評議意見,評審結果隨後公開發布。[66][67]
聯合國歐洲經濟委員會通過環境績效評審(Environmental Performance Reviews)開展同行評審(稱為「同行學習」),評估成員國在改進環境政策方面的進展。[68][69]
在美國,加利福尼亞州是唯一法定要求進行科學同行評審的州份。1997年,加州通過《第1320號參議院法案》(SB 1320),規定在任何加利福尼亞環境保護署(CalEPA)下屬機構發布最終法規前,相關科學依據須經過獨立的外部同行評審。此要求已納入《加利福尼亞州健康與安全法典》第57004條。[70][71]
教學
[編輯]教學中的同行評審,又稱學生同行評估(英語:student peer assessment),是指學生之間通過合作,對彼此的寫作作品進行反饋,以幫助作者完善和發展其寫作內容。[72][73]該方法廣泛應用於中學與高等教育階段,作為寫作教學的重要環節之一,通常通過小組形式,由學生互評作品、提供反饋和修改建議。[74][75]這一過程不僅有助於寫作能力提升,也促進學生間的交流與合作,增強寫作者的自我認同。[76][77]
除了在英語與寫作學課堂中廣泛使用,同行評審也逐漸應用於其他需要寫作作為課程組成部分的學科,如社會科學與自然科學。[78][79]
課堂中的同行評審能提升學生對自身作品及整體課堂環境的投入感。[80][81]了解作品在被教師評定前如何被同儕閱讀,有助於學生澄清觀點、增強針對不同讀者群體的表達能力,並為未來在專業領域中評審同事作品積累經驗。[82][83]研究發現,學生對同儕作品的反饋普遍較為積極,同行評審過程可增強寫作者的信心與寫作動力。[84][85]
然而,也有學者批評學生同行評審的效果,認為部分學生缺乏給予建設性意見的能力,或由於寫作水平不足,反饋質量參差不齊。[86][87]對於發展性寫作者,若自認為寫作水平不如同學,可能會缺乏信心,不願提出建議或尋求幫助。[88][89]由於學生對自身作品常有情感投入,也可能在面對反饋時表現出抗拒或敏感。[76]若教師未能有效指導,學生可能匆忙完成反饋,或提供不準確的表揚或批評,影響評審質量。[26][90]
針對上述問題,教師可通過示範評審案例、明確反饋重點,或結合在線學習管理系統進行技術支持,提升同行評審效果。[91][92]不同年齡段的學生,參與評審的能力和收穫也有所差異,通常高年級學生反饋質量更佳。但無論年齡,同行評審均可作為幫助學生學習修改寫作的重要方法。隨着教育技術不斷發展,同行評審方法和工具亦將持續演進。[93][94]
研討型同行評審
[編輯]研討型同行評審(英語:Peer seminar)是一種結合學術報告與競賽性質的同行評審方法。[95][96]在此過程中,參與者輪流進行報告,各自有固定的時間介紹自己研究的課題,報告主題可相同也可不同。由於報告通常涉及某種形式的競爭性評價機制,營造出具有挑戰性的學術氛圍。[95][97]該形式允許報告者以更具個人色彩的方式闡述內容,同時通過吸引聽眾的關注和互動,提升交流效果。
此類研討活動與學術會議中的會議報告相似,但報告時間一般更充裕,且在過程中聽眾可以隨時提問或對報告效果進行反饋。[95][98]
寫作中的同行評審
[編輯]專業同行評審通常聚焦於提升專業人員的表現、維護標準或授予認證。寫作中的同行評審(英語:peer review in writing)是同行評審實踐中的一個重要分支,尤其在學術領域,由教師引導、學生參與的寫作同行評審過程廣為使用,成為學術寫作與專業寫作訓練的重要組成部分。這一過程有助於確保學術作品的質量、有效性與可信度。[99][100]
然而,儘管寫作同行評審已被廣泛應用,其方法和效果仍存在爭議。部分學者認為該過程缺乏一致性與明確性,實施標準分散,教學實踐中存在不穩定性。[99][101]批評者指出,在學生缺乏提供建設性反饋能力或寫作技能有限的情況下,同行評審的效果往往受限。因此,如何改進寫作同行評審的組織方式與指導策略,仍是當前教學研究的重要課題。[102][103]
批評
[編輯]學術界對於同行評審制度一直存在不少批評,許多研究指出其中存在的結構性問題。
一個較為突出的問題是「角色雙重性」現象,即參與者既是被評審者,又同時擔任評審者的角色。研究顯示,這種雙重角色會導致評審者在評審過程中出現策略性行為,意圖提高自身被積極評價的可能性,從而影響評審的公正性。[104][105]
此外,同行評審普遍存在「發表偏倚」問題,許多研究顯示,學術期刊對「負面研究結果」的發表存在偏見,導致醫學知識體系信息失衡。正如《皇家醫學會雜誌》所指出:「誰願意讀一些無效的研究?那很無聊。」[106][107]
同行評審過程中的溝通障礙與認知差異,也常影響作者表達原意。例如期刊《College Composition and Communication》的評審工作,常因作者背景多元,評審者的偏見差異大,導致意見衝突。[108][109]教師也常批評課堂內的同行評審「占用時間」且「對已知成績無關緊要」。[110][111]
這些問題導致不少學生認為同行評審「無意義」。尤其在高等教育課堂,學生主要獲取反饋的對象通常是教師,教師意見權威性高,學生易傾向迎合教師立場,影響了同行反饋的價值。Benjamin Keating 的研究發現,主修寫作的學生更看重同伴反饋,非寫作專業學生則常忽視同儕評審價值,反映出同行評審需要一定的專業水平,缺乏寫作背景的學生難以充分利用同行反饋。[112][113]
此外,公共知識平台如維基百科的編輯結構,也被指出存在與學術界類似的評審主觀性問題。有案例指出,維基百科社群內的系統性拒絕和不可驗證的「把關行為」與學術同行評審中的排他性現象相似。[114][115]
Elizabeth Ellis Miller 等學者指出,學生在課堂中的同行評審往往存在以下問題:[116][117]
- 缺乏訓練:缺少系統指導,不清楚如何給出建設性反饋;
- 參與度低:認為是無聊的課堂任務,缺乏投入,反饋流於表面;
- 時間不足:課堂分配時間有限,難以進行深入評審。
此外,學生評審者和作者往往無法完全排除個人情緒,反饋中容易夾雜正面或負面情感,影響了評審的客觀性與效果。
Pamela Bedore 和 Brian O'Sullivan 的研究也認為,大多數非專業寫作者在同行評審中,僅關注表層語法或句法修改,缺乏對作者寫作意圖的理解,難以提供促進作者實現寫作目標的反饋。他們指出:「同行評審不僅應關注改進寫作,更應幫助作者實現寫作意圖。」[118][119]
替代方案
[編輯]學術界已有多種針對同行評審的替代方案提出,例如科學研究經費分配中的隨機撥款(funding-by-lottery)模式。[120][121]
比較與改進
[編輯]學者 Magda Tigchelaar 通過一項實驗,比較了自我評估、同行評審和無評審三種寫作反饋模式對學生寫作能力的影響。她將學生分為三組,在四次寫作任務中觀察每組變化,結果顯示只有「自我評估組」寫作能力有顯著提升。研究認為,自我評估可幫助作者更清楚了解不同階段的修改目標,自主性更高,而同行評審往往缺乏結構性,反饋內容零散,難以滿足作者期望。[122][123]
另有學者建議,在課堂作業中,不必完全依賴學生互評,可由教學助理協助評審,因其具備更多寫作經驗,反饋質量更穩定且偏見更少。[124][125]
Stephanie Conner 和 Jennifer Gray 認為,許多學生在同行評審環節反饋有限,原因在於缺乏信心,不敢提供實質性建議。她們提出改進策略,例如可將評審過程分組,由學生口頭陳述寫作意圖,組員記錄並分析,再拓展至全班共享反饋,擴大評審來源並提升反饋專業度。[126][127]
為減少同行評審中的溝通偏差,學生可主動向評審者提出三項針對性問題,有助於明確修改方向,提升反饋質量,並促進評審雙方的信任感。[99][128]
隨着技術發展,同行評審模式也在不斷演變。Mimi Li 研究發現,使用在線同行評審工具(如 Turnitin PeerMark)能顯著改善傳統課堂評審中的反饋問題。這類工具提供多種文本編輯和反饋功能,如內置問題引導、針對性批註,能促進學生寫作能力和成績的提升。[129][130]
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延伸閱讀
[編輯]- Baldwin, Melinda (2018). "Scientific Autonomy, Public Accountability, and the Rise of "Peer Review" in the Cold War United States". Isis. 109 (3): 538–558.
- Lee, Carole J.; Sugimoto, Cassidy R.; Zhang, Guo; Cronin, Blaise. Bias in peer review
. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 2013, 64 (1): 2–17. doi:10.1002/asi.22784 (英語).
- Bazi, Toni. Peer Review: Single-blind, Double-blind, or All the Way-blind?. International Urogynecology Journal. 2020, 31 (3): 481–4839 December 2019. PMID 31820012. S2CID 208869313. doi:10.1007/s00192-019-04187-2.
- Tomkins, Andrew; Zhang, Min; Heavlin, William D. Fiske, Susan T. , 編. Reviewer Bias in Single- Versus Double-blind Peer Review. 美國國家科學院院刊. 2017, 114 (48): 12708–12713November 2017. Bibcode:2017PNAS..11412708T. PMC 5715744
. PMID 29138317. doi:10.1073/pnas.1707323114
. 已忽略未知參數
|orig-date=
(幫助) - Martín, Eloisa. How Double-blind Peer Review Works and What It Takes To Be A Good Referee. Current Sociology. 2016, 64 (5): 691–698. doi:10.1177/0011392116656711
.
- Hames, Irene. Peer Review and Manuscript Management in Scientific Journals: Guidelines for Good Practice. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. 2007. ISBN 978-1-4051-3159-9.
外部連結
[編輯]- 什麼是同行評審?(Elsevier 出版社)