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美式标音系统
类型
使用时期
1880年代至今
语言用于任何语言的语音转录
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拉丁语字母,以希腊字母扩充
  • 美式标音系统
 本页面包含国际音标 (IPA) 符号。 有关 IPA 符号的介绍指南,请参阅 Help:IPA[ ]/ / 及 ⟨ ⟩ 之间的区别,参阅IPA§方括号与转录定界符

美式标音系统(英语:Americanist phonetic notation)是一个语音转录系统,最初由欧洲和美国的人类学家和语言科学家(其中大部分都是新语法学派英语Neogrammarian分子)研发,目的是对美洲原住民语言欧洲语言语音音位转写。到现在,研究斯拉夫语族乌拉尔语系闪米特语族高加索诸语言印度语言非洲语言的语言学家仍是经常使用该系统。然而,研究乌拉尔语系的语言学家更常使用一个变体,称为乌拉尔音标英语Uralic Phonetic Alphabet

国际音标(IPA)相比,美式标音系统更常用附加符号。IPA追求使用最少量的附加符号辨别最多的语音,而它只在齿-龈区别中使用这些符号。美式标音系统依赖附加符号以辨别所转录的语言中的许多音素区别。另一方面,美式标音系统会使用单字母表达舌冠塞擦音,而IPA则需要二合字母。在其他方面,美式标音系统变得越来越像IPA,弃用了许多较为晦涩的字母。

与IPA的区别

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美式标音系统的某些符号最初与国际音标中的一模一样,但现已成为弃用国际音标符号比如,⟨ι⟩。随着时间推移,美式标音系统与IPA越来越相似。爱德华·萨丕尔早期和后期作品的差别便能体现这一点。然而,两者系统依然由显著区别,包括:

  • y代表[j]ñ代表[ɲ]c¢代表[t͡s]ƛ代表[t͡ɬ]ł代表[ɬ]
  • 硬腭齿龈音č ǰ š ž,有时还有龈硬腭音ć ś ź ń
  • 齿音和硬腭音(不包括齿无咝擦音θ ð)的前移符号(反短音符),以及卷舌音和小舌音(不包括小舌音q)的后移符号(圆点)
  • rř表示闪音,表示颤音
  • 反尾形符表示鼻音化
  • 元音上的圆点表示央化,两点(分音符)表示前移(适用于前圆唇元音和后不圆唇元音)
  • 元音上的尖音符和重音符表示重音

历史

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约翰·威斯利·鲍威尔在有关美国语族的出版物中使用一套早期符号,但这些符号都来自其他语音学家和美国作家的作品。人类学家法兰兹·鲍亚士使用了另一套稍微不同的符号。1916年,美国人类学协会的一份出版物大大扩展了鲍亚士的字母系统。布卢姆菲尔德及博林(1927年)和赫尔佐克等人(1934年)的文章讨论并修改这个字母系统。美式标音系统有时出现于《美国人类学家英语American Anthropologist》《国际美国语言学期刊英语International Journal of American Linguistics》和《语言英语Language (journal)》这些期刊中。

阿伯克龙比(1991:44-45)就美式标音系统作出以下论述:

美国的标音系统历史值得深入讨论。伦纳德·布龙菲尔德在早期书籍《语言学简介》(An Introduction to the Study of Language,1914年)和更著名的《语言》(Language,1935年)的英国版中使用了IPA。但自此以后,许多美国语言学家都异常抗拒IPA,尤其是对某些符号。

1952年,查尔斯·沃格林英语Charles F. Voegelin在纽约的人类学研讨会中讲了一件有趣的事情。他说,在1930年代初,一位“亲切的丹麦人”教他语音学,让他使用“ship”中“sh”音的IPA符号,等等。一会儿后,他在某篇关于一个美国原住民语言的作品中使用了这些符号,准备给爱德华·萨丕尔看。萨丕尔看了这篇作品时直接“火冒三丈”,要求沃格林以后用“š”(s wedge),而不是那个IPA符号。

我坚信那位“亲切的丹麦人”其实是汉斯·J·乌尔达尔英语H. J. Uldall。他是丹尼尔·琼斯最出色的学徒之一,之后和路易·叶尔姆斯列夫创始了言理学英语glossematics。乌尔达尔深入研究了加利福尼亚州的语言,特别是东北迈杜语英语Maidu南方迈杜语英语Nisenan language(迈杜语的分支)。他所写的大多数文章都没有在他生前发布。讽刺的是,这些作品在乌尔达尔死后被加州大学出版社出版时,编辑引言说它们“的拼写法都经过了重写”:乌尔达尔所用的IPA符号都被移除或替换成其他符号。

奇怪的是,IPA符号对于美国标音系统符号有明显优势,比如“长s”和“s wedge”。琼斯指出为求易读性,语音学家都应尽量避免使用附加符号。许多美国语言学家的作品乍看都像是充斥了附加符号。

有人可能想知道为什么美国语言学家都这么排斥IPA。我想为这个似乎不理智的态度提供一个理由。寻根究底,这个憎恨来自大多数美国大学都有的语言部门,而英国大学是没有的。语言部门一般有权有势、有钱有人。就语言学和语音学而言,他们以规范语言学英语Linguistic prescription著称,有些人则觉得他们则不太有学问。他们在出版物和期刊中会用IPA标记读音。我相信美国语言学部门成员最不想遇到的一件事是被误认为是语言部门的成员,但如果他在作品中使用IPA,则必定会招致这个怀疑。

字母

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辅音

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美式标音系统没有一个中心机构。 西方濒危语言文献研究所英语Western Institute for Endangered Language Documentation(WIELD)推荐以下用法:[1]

前移是⟨⟩,后移是⟨⟩。辅音延长是⟨C꞉⟩或⟨CC⟩。声门音化的例子包括⟨č̓⟩或⟨⟩(挤喉音与声门化的其他类型归为同一类)。腭音化是⟨⟩。唇音化、软腭化、送气、清音和前鼻化与IPA的相同。咽音、会厌音和声门音,以及内爆音和搭嘴音与IPA的相同 。。

WIELD建议的美式标音系统辅音
  双唇音 唇齿音 齿音 齿龈音 卷舌音 齿龈后音 龈腭音 硬腭音 软腭音 小舌音 咽音 声门音
塞音 p   t k q ʔ[2]
b   d ɡ̯ ɡ ɡ̇
塞擦音 中央音   pf c č ć kx qx̣
  dz dẓ ǰ
dz̯
边音       ƛ          
      λ          
擦音 中央音 ɸ f θ s š ś x ħ h
β v ð z ž ź ɣ̯ ɣ ɣ̇ ʕ ɦ
边音       ł       łʸ    
      ɮ            
鼻音 m n ń ñ ŋ ŋ̇
颤音             ʀ
弹音     r      
近音 中央音   ʋ   ɹ ɹ̣     y  
唇音化     w
边音     l  

美式标音系统与IPA的区别可分为几大类:使用附加符号分别从齿龈音和软腭音得出其他舌冠音和舌背音;将c j λ ƛ用作塞擦音;将y用作辅音;以及将r用作弹音。

注意:

  • 在齿擦音中,θ ð是无咝擦音,而s̯ z̯是有咝擦音。

Rhotics table

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Most languages only have one phonemic rhotic consonant (only about 18% of the world's languages have more than one rhotic).[来源请求] As a result, rhotic consonants are generally transcribed with the r character. This usage is common practice in Americanist and also other notational traditions (such as the IPA). This lack of detail, although economical and phonologically sound, requires a more careful reading of a given language's phonological description to determine the precise phonetics. A list of rhotics is given below.

Common rhotic conventions
Alveolar Retroflex/Uvular
Approximant r
Flap ř ṛ̌
Tap ᴅ̇
Trill ṛ̃

Other flaps are ň, l͏̌, etc.

Common alternate symbols

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There are many alternate symbols seen in Americanist transcription. Below are some equivalent symbols matched with the symbols shown in the consonant chart above.

  • ¢ may be used for c.
  • č̣ may be used for .
  • j may be used for ʒ.
  • ǰ may be used for ǯ.
  • ƚ may be used for ł.
  • ɸ may be used for φ.
  • G may be used for ġ.
  • X may be used for .
  • ʸ may be used for fronted velars (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑).
  • Some transcriptions superscript the onset of doubly articulated consonants and the release of fricatives, e.g. ᵍɓ, t̓ᶿ.
  • There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex č̣ ṣ̌ ẓ̌ and apical retroflex c̣ ṣ ẓ in some transcriptions.
  • The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental and palatal .
  • Many researchers use the x-caron (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative.
  • The use of the standard IPA belted l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw

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According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996),[3] typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows. There was, however, little standardization of rhotics, and may be either retroflex or uvular, though as noted above or ṛ̌ may be a retroflex flap vs ṛ̃ as a uvular trill. Apart from the ambiguity of the rhotics below, and minor graphic variants (ȼ g γ for c ɡ ɣ and the placement of the diacritic in g̑ γ̑), this is compatible with the WIELD recommendations. Only precomposed affricates are shown below; others may be indicated by digraphs (e.g. dz).

Typical NAPA consonant values (not prescriptive)
  Bilabial Labio-
dental
Inter-
dental
Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palato-
alveolar
Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal
Glottal
Stop (oral) voiceless p   t k q   ʔ
voiced b   d g ġ    
Affricate voiceless   ȼ č      
voiced   ǰ      
Lateral affricate voiceless       ƛ              
voiced       λ              
Fricative voiceless ɸ f θ s š x ħ h
voiced β v ð z ž γ̑ γ γ̇ ʕ ɦ
Lateral fricative voiceless       ł              
Nasal m n ñ ŋ ŋ̇    
Rhotic     r        
Lateral     l      
Glide (w)           y (w)    

Ejectives and implosives follow the same conventions as in the IPA, apart from the ejective apostrophe being placed above the base letter.

Pike

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Pike英语Kenneth Lee Pike (1947) provides the following set of symbols:

Pike (1947) consonant values
  Bilabial Labio-
dental
Inter-
dental
Alveolar Retroflex Alveolo-
palatal
Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal
Glottal
Stop (oral) voiceless p   t k ḳ (q) ḳ̣ ʔ
voiced b   d g g̣ (G)    
Affricate voiceless pᵽ   t̯θ ts (ȼ) tš (č)   kx    
voiced bb̶ d̯ꟈ dz (ʒ) dž (ǰ)   gg̶    
Lateral affricate voiceless       tƚ (ƛ)              
voiced       dl (λ)              
Flat fricative voiceless f θ θ̣ x h
voiced v ꟈ̣ g̶̯ g̶̣ ɦ
Sibilant voiceless w̱̟ (W̟) s ṣ , ṣ̌ š
voiced z ẓ , ẓ̌ ž
Lateral fricative voiceless       ƚ̟              
voiced                    
Nasal voiceless m̱ (M) ṉ (N) ṉ̃ (Ñ) ŋ̱ (Ŋ)    
voiced m n ñ ŋ    
Lateral voiceless     ƚ (L) ƚʸ      
voiced     l      
Flap voiceless     ṟ̌        
voiced ř , l͏̌ ṛ̌
Trill voiceless ṟ̃
voiced ṛ̃

Voiceless, voiced and syllabic consonants may also be C̥, C̬ and C̩, as in IPA. Aspirated consonants are Cʻ or C̥ʰ / C̬ʱ. Non-audible release is indicated with superscripting, Vꟲ.

Fortis is C͈ and lenis C᷂. Labialization is C̮ or Cʷ; palatalization is Ꞔ, C⁽ⁱ⁾ or Cʸ; velarization is C⁽ᵘ⁾, and pharyngealization is C̴.

Other airstream mechanisms are pulmonic ingressive C, ejective Cˀ, implosive Cˁ, click C˂, and lingual ejective (spurt) C˃.

Anthropos

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The journal Anthropos published the alphabet to be used in their articles in 1907.[4] Although European, it is the same basic system that Sapir and Boas introduced to the United States. Transcription is italic, without other delimiters.

Anthropos alphabet (1907)
  Labial Coronal
("Dental")
Palatal Dorsal
("Guttural")
Pharyn-
geal
Epi-
glottal
Glottal
Bilabial Labio-
dental
Inter-
dental
Alveolar Retroflex Pre-
velar
Velar Uvular
Plosive voiceless p   t c k ʼ
voiced b   d j g    
Affricate voiceless (pf)   t͏̯̌ (t̯s̯) t͏̌ (ts) ṭ̌ (ṭṣ) č () ǩ̯ (k̯x̯) ǩ (kx) ḳ̌ (ḳx̣)
voiced (bv)   d͏̯̌ (d̯z̯) d͏̌ (dz) ḍ̌ (ḍẓ) ǰ () ǧ̯ (g̯y) ǧ (gÿ) ǧ̣ (g̣ỵ̈)    
Fricative voiceless () f s š x h
voiced w v z ž y ÿ ỵ̈    
Rhotic     r̯ ꭈ̯ r ꭈ ṛ ꭈ̣   ꭉ̯ ꭊ̯ ꭉ ꭊ ꭉ̣ ꭊ̣  
Lateral flap     𝼑      
Lateral liquid     l (ĺ)   ɫ    
Lateral affricate voiceless       ()[5]     ()        
voiced       ()     ()        
Lateral fricative voiceless       ()     ()        
voiced       ()     ()        
Nasal m () n (ń) ꬻ̯ () ꬻ̣    
Prenasalized? voiceless  
voiced      
Ejective  
Ingressive p   ʇ ʇ̣ ɔ ʞ

Palatalized consonants are written with an acute – t́ d́ ć j́ ś ź ĺ ń etc. Semivowels are i̯ u̯ ü̯ o̯ e̯ etc.

Vowels

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WIELD recommends the following conventions. It doesn't provide characters for distinctions that aren't attested in the literature:[1]

WIELD recommendations for NAPA (semi)vowels
  Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y   w
Close higher i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ɪ ʊ̈ ʊ̇ ʊ
Mid higher e ö ə ȯ ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ɛ̇ ɔ̇ ʌ ɔ
Open higher æ ɒ̈ æ̇ ɑ ɒ
lower a a

No distinction is made between front and central for the lowest unrounded vowels. Diphthongs are e.g. ⟨ai⟩ or ⟨ay⟩, depending on phonological analysis. Nasal vowels are e.g. ⟨ą⟩. Long vowels are e.g. ⟨a꞉⟩. A three-way length distinction may be ⟨a a꞉ a꞉꞉⟩ or ⟨a aꞏ a꞉⟩. Primary and secondary stress are e.g. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩. Voicelessness is e.g. ⟨⟩, as in the IPA. Creak, murmur, rhoticity et al. are as in the IPA.

Pullum & Ladusaw

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According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows:

Typical NAPA vowel values (not prescriptive)
Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y w
High (higher) i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ɪ ᴜ̈ ɪ̈
Mid higher e ö ə ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ʌ ɔ
Low æ a/ɑ
Lower-Low a ɑ ɒ

Pike

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Pike (1947) presents the following:

Pike (1947) vowel values
Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y w
High (higher) i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ι ᴜ̈ ϊ
Mid higher e ö ə ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ʌ ɔ
Low æ
Lower-Low a ɑ ɒ

Nasalization is V̨ or Vⁿ. A long vowel is V꞉ or Vꞏ; half-long is V‧ (raised dot). Positional variants are fronted V˂, backed V˃, raised V˄ and lowered V˅.

Anthropos

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Vowels are inconsistent between languages. ï ë etc. may be used for unrounded central vowels,[6] and the a-based letters are poorly defined, with height and rounding confounded.

Anthropos (semi)vowels
  Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Semivowel ü̯ ī̯ ū̯ ï̯
High higher i ü ī (ï) ū ï u
lower ü̠ ī̠ ū̠ ï̠
Mid higher ọ̈ ẹ̄ ọ̄ ẹ̈
mid e ö ē (ë) ō ë o
lower ö̠ ē̠ ō̠ ë̠
Low higher a̤̣ a̰̣
mid
ä
lower a

There are actually three heights of low front and back vowels. ā is also seen for a low back vowel.

Reduced (obscure) vowels are i̥ e̥ ḁ etc. There are also extra-high vowels ị ụ etc.

Bloch & Trager

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Bloch & Trager (1942)[来源请求] proposed the following schema, which was never used. They use a single dot for central vowels and a dieresis to reverse backness. The only central vowels with their own letters are ɨ, which already has a dot, and , which would not be distinct if formed with a dot.

Bloch & Trager vowel symbols
Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
High i ü ɨ ï u
Lower-high ɪ ᴜ̈ ᴜ̇ ɪ̈
Higher-mid e ö ë o
Mean-mid ꭥ̈ ᴇ̇ ꭥ̇ ᴇ̈
Lower-mid ɛ ɔ̈ ɛ̇ ɔ̇ ɛ̈ ɔ
Higher-low æ ω̈ æ̇ ω̇ æ̈ ω
Low a ɒ̈ ɒ̇ ä ɒ

Kurath

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Kurath (1939) is as follows.[7] Enclosed in parentheses are rounded vowels. Apart from ⟨ʚ, ꭤ⟩ and some differences in alignment, it is essentially the IPA.

Front Half-
front
Central Half-
back
Back
High i (y) ɨ (ʉ) ɯ (u)
Lower high ɪ (ʏ) ᵻ (ᵾ) ɤ (ᴜ)
Higher mid e (ø) ɘ (o)
Mid ə (ɵ)
Lower mid ɛ (ʚ) ɜ (ɞ) ʌ
Higher low æ ɐ (ɔ)
Low a ɑ ꭤ (ɒ)

Chomsky & Halle

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Chomsky & Halle (1968) proposed the following schema, which was hardly ever used. In addition to the table, there was ə for an unstressed reduced vowel.

Chomsky & Halle vowel symbols
[−back] [+back]
[−round] [+round] [−round] [+round]
[+high −low] [+tense] i ü ᵻ̄ u
[−tense] ɪ ᴜ̈
[−high −low] [+tense] e ȫ ʌ̄ ō
[−tense] ɛ ö ʌ o
[−high +low] [+tense] ǣ ꭢ̄ ā ɔ̄
[−tense] æ a ɔ

Tone and prosody

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Pike (1947) provides the following tone marks:

  • High: V́ or V¹
  • Mid: V̍ or V²
  • Norm: V̄ or V³
  • Low: V̀ or V⁴

Stress is primary ˈCV or V́ and secondary ˌCV or V̀.

Short or intermediate and long or final 'pauses' are |, ||, as in IPA.

Syllable division is CV.CV, as in IPA, and morpheme boundaries are CV-CV.

Historical charts of 1916

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The following charts were agreed by committee of the American Anthropological Association in 1916.[8]

The vowel chart is based on the classification of H. Sweet. The high central vowels are differentiated by moving the centralizing dot to the left rather than with a cross stroke. IPA equivalents are given in a few cases that may not be clear.

narrow wide
back mixed front back mixed front
high ï ı᷸ (= ˙ı) i ɩ̈ ɩ᷸ (= ˙ɩ) ɩ
mid α [ʌ] e a ε
low ȧ ä
high round u ü υ υ̇ ϋ
mid round o ȯ ö ɔ ɔ̇ ɔ̈
low round ω ω̇ ω̈
  Stops Spirants Affricates Nasals Laterals Lateral Affricates Rolled Consonants
Surd Sonant Intermed. Aspirated Glot-
talized
英语Glottalic consonant
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英语Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英语Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英语Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英语Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英语Glottalic consonant
*
Bilabial
(rounded)
pw bw ʙw pwʽ w , pwǃ ƕ w ƕǃ bw pƕǃ w mw                  
Bilabial
(unrounded)
p b ʙ p̓ , pǃ φ β φǃ pφǃ m                  
Dento-
labial
          f v pf bv pfǃ                      
Inter-
dental
英语Interdental
          θ ϑ θǃ tθǃ                      
Linguo-
dental
ᴅ̯ t̯ʽ t̯̓ , t̯ǃ s̯ǃ t̯s d̯z t̯sǃ ɴ̯ ƚ̯ , ʟ̯ ƚ̯ǃ t̯ƚ d̯l t̯ƚǃ ʀ̯ ʀ̯ǃ
Linguo-
alveolar
t d t̓ , tǃ s z ts dz tsǃ ɴ n ƚ , ʟ l ƚǃ dl tƚǃ ʀ r ʀǃ
Cerebral ᴅ̣ ṭʽ ṭ̓ , ṭǃ ṣǃ ṭs ḍz ṭsǃ ɴ̣ ƚ̣ , ʟ̣ ƚ̣ǃ ṭƚ ḍl ṭƚǃ ʀ̣ ʀ̣ǃ
Dorso-
dental
τ̯ δ̯ Δ̯ τ̯ʽ τ̯̓ , τ̯ǃ σ̯ ζ̯ σ̯ǃ τ̯σ δ̯ζ τ̯σǃ ν̯ ν̯ ᴧ̯ λ̯ ᴧ̯ǃ τ̯ᴧ δ̯ᴧ τ̯ᴧǃ      
Dorsal τ δ Δ[9] τʽ τ̓ , τǃ σ ζ σǃ τσ δζ τσǃ
ν
[10]
ν
λ ᴧǃ τᴧ δᴧ τᴧǃ      
Dorso-
palatal
τ̣ δ̣ Δ̣ τ̣ʽ τ̣̓ , τ̣ǃ σ̣ ζ̣ σ̣ǃ τ̣σ δ̣ζ τ̣σǃ
ν̣
ν̣
ᴧ̣ λ̣ ᴧ̣ǃ τ̣ᴧ δ̣ᴧ τ̣ᴧǃ      
Anterior
c-sounds
y) y) (Δy) yʽ) (τ̓ , τyǃ) cy jy cyǃ tcy djy tcyǃ (
ν
y)
(
ν
y)
(ᴧy) y) (ᴧyǃ) (τᴧy) (δᴧy) (τᴧyǃ)      
Mid
c-sounds
(ty) (dy) (ᴅy) (tyʽ) (t̓ , tyǃ) c j tc dj tcǃ y) (ny) y , ʟy) (ly) yǃ) (tƚy) (dly) (tƚyǃ)      
Posterior
c-sounds
(ṭy) (ḍy) (ᴅ̣y) (ṭyʽ) (ṭ̓ , ṭyǃ) c̣ǃ ṭc ḍj ṭcǃ (ɴ̣y) (ṇy) (ƚ̣y , ʟ̣y) (ḷy) (ƚ̣yǃ) (ṭƚy) (ḍly) (ṭƚyǃ)      
Anterior
palatal
ɢ̯ k̯ʽ k̯̓ , k̯ǃ γ̯ x̯ǃ k̯x g̯γ k̯xǃ ᴎ̯ ŋ̯       k̯ƚ g̯l k̯ƚǃ Ρ̯ ρ̯ ρ̯ǃ
Mid-
palatal
k g ɢ k̓ , kǃ x γ kx kxǃ [11] ŋ       gl kƚǃ Ρ ρ ρǃ
Back palatal,
velar
ḳ (q) ɢ̣ ḳʽ ḳ̓ , ḳǃ γ̣ x̣ǃ ḳx g̣γ ḳxǃ ᴎ̣ ŋ̣       ḳƚ g̣l ḳƚǃ Ρ̣ ρ̣ ρ̣ǃ
Glottal ʼ     ʼʽ   ʽ , h (any
vowel)
  ʼʽ                     (a̓)    
Laryngeal ʼ̣     ʼ̣ʽ   (any vowel with laryngeal resonance)   ʼ̣ḥ                          

Notes:

  • surd = voiceless; sonant = voiced; intermed. = partially voiced
  • In the glottalized stop column, the phonetic symbol appearing on the left side (which is a consonant plus an overhead single quotation mark) represents a weakly glottalized英语Glottalic consonant stop (i.e. weakly ejective). The symbol on the right side is strongly glottalized (i.e. it is articulated very forcefully). Example: [k̓ ] = weakly glottalized, [kǃ] = strongly glottalized. (Cf. = [k] followed by glottal stop.) This convention is only shown for the glottalized stops, but may be used for any of the glottalized consonants.
  • "Laryngeal" refers to either pharyngeal or epiglottal.

Variation between authors

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Following are symbols that differ among well-known Americanist sources.[12][13]

Powel
1880
Boas
1911
AAA
1916
Sapir
1934
Sturtevant
1978
WIELD
2020
IPA
plosives
kꞏ ky k̯, kʸ c
gꞏ gy ɡ̯, ɡʸ ɟ
q q, ḳ q q
ġ ɡ̇ ɢ
ʼ ʔ ʔ ʔ ʔ
affricates
θ̂ t͜θ
ð̂ d͜ð
ts c c c t͜s
dz ʒ ʒ dz d͜z
tc tc č č č t͜ʃ
dj dj ǯ ǯ ǰ d͡ʒ
ʟ tł, tʟ ƛ ƛ ƛ t͡ɬ
ʟ̣ dl λ λ λ d͡ɮ
fricatives
ç ç θ θ θ θ
ȼ ȼ ϑ δ ð ð
c c c š š ʃ
j j j ž ž ʒ
q x x x x
x γ γ γ ɣ ɣ
x χ
γ̣ γ̣ γ̇ ɣ̇ ʁ
ħ ħ
nasals
ñ ñ ñ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
ṇ̃ ṇ̃ ŋ̇ ŋ̇ ɴ
M
ɴ N
ñ̥ ɴ̃ ŋ̊
laterals ł ł, ʟ ł ł ɬ
trills ɹ ʀ ʀ
Powel
1880
Boas
1911
AAA
1916
Sapir
1934
Sturtevant
1978
WIELD
2020
IPA
aspiration Cʽ, Cʰ
glottalization Cʼ (bʼ) C! Cʼ, 英语Glottalic consonant
palatalization Cꞏ Cy, Cy 英语Palatalized consonant
labialization Cᵘ Cw, Cw
length V̄? Vꞏ (V:) Vꞏ (V:) V꞉ (a꞉ a꞉꞉ or aꞏ a꞉) Vː (Vːː)
nasalization Vⁿ Vⁿ
Powel
1880
Boas
1911
AAA
1916
Sapir
1934
Sturtevant
1978
WIELD
2020
IPA
vowels
ǐ i i, ī i i i
i ɩ, i ɪ ɪ ɪ
ě e e, ē e e e
e ɛ, e ɛ ɛ ɛ
ä ä, ă æ æ æ
u u u, ū u u u
ǔ υ, u ʊ ʊ
o o o, ō o o o
ǒ ɔ, o ŏ ɔ ɔ
ɔ â ω ɔ ɒ ɒ
ï ɨ ɨ, ï ɨ, ɯ
û ə ə ə ə
ɑ, ȧ ʌ ʌ? ɐ

See also

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References

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  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 WIELD's Recommended Americanist Transcription System
  2. ^ ʔ⟩ is often rendered by removing the dot from a question mark ⟨?⟩.
  3. ^ Phonetic Symbol Guide, 2nd ed., p. 301–302
  4. ^ P. W. Schmidt, P. G. Schmidt and P. J. Hermes, "Die Sprachlaute und ihre Darstellung in einem allgemeinen linguistischen Alphabet (Schluß) / Les sons du langage et leur représentation dans un alphabet linguistique général (Conclusion)", Anthropos, Bd. 2, H. 5. (1907), insert at page 1098
  5. ^ Although Anthropos specifies a bridge for lateral obstruents, it was more common at the time to use a tilde.
  6. ^ The central vowels shown here do not appear in the main vowel charts, but occur in various illustrations.
  7. ^ Kurath, Hans. Handbook of the Linguistic Geography of New England. Brown University. 1939: 123. 
  8. ^ Boas, Goddard, Sapir & Kroeber (1916) Phonetic Transcription of Indian Languages: Report of Committee of American Anthropological Association. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 66.6.[1] Chart is a fold-out behind the back cover that is not reproduced at this link.
  9. ^ There is no small-capital delta in Unicode. A full capital would normally be substituted.
  10. ^ Not supported by Unicode. It can be kept distinct in a database as Greek Ν, but that is not visually distinct in print.
  11. ^ Small-capital engma is rendered various ways. ⟨⟩ is the form it takes in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet英语Uralic Phonetic Alphabet and is the form supported by Unicode.
  12. ^ Mithun, Languages of Native North America, 1999, p. viii.
  13. ^ Sturtevant, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 17, 1978, p. 12ff
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Bibliography

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  • Abercrombie, David. (1991). Daniel Jones's teaching. In D. Abercrombie, Fifty years in phonetics: Selected papers (pp. 37–47). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (Original work published 1985 in V. A. Fromkin (Ed.), Phonetic linguistics: Essays in honor of Peter Ladefoged, Orlando, Academic Press, Inc.).
  • Albright, Robert W. (1958). The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
  • American Anthropological Society [Boas, Franz; Goddard, Pliny E.; Sapir, Edward; & Kroeber, Alfred L.]. (1916). Phonetic transcription of Indian languages: Report of committee of American Anthropological Association. Smithsonian miscellaneous collections (Vol. 66, No. 6). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution (American Anthropological Society).
  • Bloomfield, Leonard; & Bolling George Melville. (1927). What symbols shall we use? Language, 3 (2), 123–129.
  • Boas, Franz. (1911). Introduction. In F. Boas (Ed.), Handbook of American Indian languages (pp. 5–83). Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 40). Washington. (Reprinted 1966).
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Clark, John; & Yallop, Colin. (1995). An introduction to phonetics and phonology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19452-5.
  • Odden, David. (2005). Introducing phonology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82669-1 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-53404-6 (pbk).
  • Goddard, Ives. (1996). Introduction. In I. Goddard (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 1–16). (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
  • Herzog, George; Newman, Stanley S.; Sapir, Edward; Swadesh, Mary Haas; Swadesh, Morris; Voegelin, Charles F. (1934). Some orthographic recommendations. American Anthropologist, 36 (4), 629–631. doi:10.1525/aa.1934.36.4.02a00300
  • Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). [Review of Phonetic symbol guide by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw]. Language, 64 (1), 143–144.
  • International Phonetic Association. (1949). The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
  • Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
  • Langacker, Ronald W. (1972). Fundamentals of linguistic analysis. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Ed.), The world's writing systems (pp. 821–846). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
  • Maddieson, Ian. (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge studies in speech science and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • ———— (1947) Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Powell, John W. (1880). Introduction to the Study of Indian languages, with words, phrases, and sentences to be collected (2nd Ed.). Washington: Government Printing Office.
  • Pullum, Geoffrey K.; & Laduslaw, William A. (1986). Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).

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