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糖尿病

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维基百科,自由的百科全书
糖尿病
Diabetes mellitus
A hollow circle with a thick blue border and a clear centre
代表糖尿病的通用符号[1]
读音
症状多尿多渴多食
并发症代谢不平衡、心血管疾病心肌梗死、神经和脑部受损、肾功能衰竭、消化道改变[2][3][4][5]
病程部分患者可能会缓解,但大多个案为不可逆
类型
病因胰岛素不足或体细胞对胰岛素逐渐产生抗性
风险因素
  • 1型遗传与环境因子[6]
  • 2型:遗传、肥胖、家族病史、非酒精性脂肪性肝病、妊娠糖尿病史、缺乏运动[2][6]
诊断方法血糖糖化血红蛋白相对较高[2]
鉴别诊断尿崩症
治疗调整生活型态及使用抗糖尿病药[2]
药物胰岛素、口服降血糖药[2][7][8]
患病率2024年20至79岁人口:估计5.89亿人(11.1%)[9]
死亡数2024年:340万[9]
分类和外部资源
医学专科内分泌科
ICD-9-CM250
MedlinePlus001214
eMedicine117739、​117853
Orphanet101952
[编辑此条目的维基数据]

糖尿病拉丁语diabetes mellitus缩写DM,简称diabetes)是以持续性高血糖为特点的内分泌疾病[10][11]。患者的胰脏没有制造出足够的胰岛素,或身体细胞对胰岛素欠反应[12],引起统称为“三多一少”的症状—— 多尿多渴多食体重减少。未经妥善控制的糖尿病可导致心血管病变视网膜病变肾病变周边神经病变等多种并发症[3]。它在每年促成了约340万人死亡[9],当中约160万例可直接归因于未经妥善控制的糖尿病[10]

1型2型糖尿病占了糖尿病个案中的绝大多数[13]。1型糖尿病常以注射胰岛素的方式管理;2型糖尿病则可透过调整生活型态和使用双胍类抗糖尿病药来管理。部分孕妇会患上妊娠糖尿病,在胎儿出产后他们的血糖值多会回复正常。1型糖尿病是一种自身免疫性疾病,多于患者出生或幼年时发病。他们的免疫系统破坏了制造胰岛素的胰岛β细胞。2型糖尿病患者的体细胞对胰岛素产生抗性,因此葡萄糖会难以吸收到细胞当中,在血液中累积[14]。此外,糖尿病可由某些特定原因引起,像是基因(新生儿糖尿病英语Neonatal diabetes青少年发病的成人型糖尿病英语maturity-onset diabetes of the young等单基因糖尿病)、胰腺炎等影响胰脏的疾病、糖皮质激素等药物和化学物质[15]

在1990年至2022年期间,全球确诊糖尿病的人数呈上升趋势——由约2亿人升至8.3亿人[16][17]。它的男女患病率接近[18],每9个成年人就有1个受糖尿病影响,当中大多数(>90%)为2型糖尿病[19]。有关数字的升幅在低收入及中收入国家中相对较显著[20]。在全球,糖尿病估计花费约600亿美元的年保健成本[21],并在死亡原因中位居第八位[22]

症状与体征

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糖尿病的常见症状

糖尿病的常见症状统称为“三多一少”——多尿、多食、多喝、体重减少[23][24]。此外也有可能出现其他非特异性症状,像是疲弱、视力模糊、精液或尿液有甜味、念珠菌感染引起的生殖器瘙痒[24]。约一半受影响人士没出现任何症状[24]。1型糖尿病的症状出现得较突然,而2型则可以多年无症状[25]

糖尿病酮症酸中毒是常见于1型糖尿病的急性并发症,不过若2型患者患病多年或拥有严重的β细胞功能失常,那么也有机会出现这种并发症[26]。当中过度生成的酮体会引起恶心、呕吐、腹痛、呼气有丙酮味、库斯莫呼吸等症状或体征,严重者或会神志不清[26]。此外,严重高血糖所引起的脱水会导致另一种急性并发症——高渗性高血糖状态。它会令人血液中的钠离子浓度过高,最终导致神志不清,严重者或会昏迷[27]

低血糖是因胰岛素治疗而引起的常见副作用[28]。较轻微的低血糖会引起排汗量增加、颤抖、心悸等表现;严重者则会令人谵妄、精神混乱、癫痫发作昏迷。因此而死亡的情况较罕见[28]。重复性的低血糖事件可能令出现症状的阈值下降,即在低血糖开始时该些轻微的症状可能不会出现,直到认知能力减弱[28]

长期并发症

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主要的糖尿病长期并发症跟大血管英语Macrovascular disease小血管英语Microvascular disease受损有关[29][30]。糖尿病令心血管疾病的风险增加了一倍,约75%糖尿病患者死于冠状动脉疾病[31]。其他跟糖尿病大血管病变有关的并发症有中风周边动脉阻塞[32]

糖尿病小血管病变会影响眼睛肾脏神经[29]。处于工作年龄之人士最常因糖尿病视网膜病变而失明[24]。除此之外,糖尿病小血管病变也会令人患上白内障青光眼[24]。糖尿病患者应每年进行一次眼科检查[33]

糖尿病肾病慢性肾病个案中的一大比例,美国超过一半的肾脏透析个案都可归因于糖尿病肾病[34]糖尿病周边神经病变则会引起感觉缺失神经性疼痛自主神经紊乱 (以直立性低血压腹泻勃起功能障碍的方式呈现)等问题[24]。对创伤的痛觉受损可引起足部问题(像是溃疡),它是最常见的非创伤性下肢截肢原因[24]

听觉受损亦是跟1型糖尿病有关的长期并发症[35]。2型糖尿病则跟胆结石存有潜在因果关系[36]。糖尿病亦跟认知缺陷有关——多项研究显示糖尿病患者有较高风险出现认知能力下降,下降速度亦比非糖尿病患者高[37]。糖尿病中年患者日后患上痴呆的风险会增加。不过对于较年老发病的糖尿病患者而言,这一风险尚不明确[38]。患有糖尿病的老年人较容易出现跌倒的情况,特别是需接受胰岛素治疗的患者[39]

分类

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1型与2型糖尿病的比较[40]
特征 1型糖尿病 2型糖尿病
发病 突发 逐渐
发病年龄 任何年龄。平均在24岁之前确诊[41] 多见于成人
体型 瘦或正常[42] 通常为肥胖
并发糖尿病酮症酸中毒 常见 罕见
自身抗体 普遍存在 没有
内源性胰岛素 低或无 正常、减少或增加
遗传度 0.69-0.88[43][44][45] 0.47-0.77[46]
患病率

(年龄标准化)

每1,000例中<2例[47] 女:约5%;男:约6%[48]

世界卫生组织把糖尿病分为6种类型:1型糖尿病2型糖尿病、 混合型糖尿病(包括成人隐匿迟发性自身免疫糖尿病酮症倾向2型糖尿病英语Ketosis-prone diabetes)、妊娠期首次发现的高血糖、特殊类型糖尿病、未分类糖尿病[49]。部分患者可能同时患上不同类型的糖尿病[50]

1型

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1型糖尿病占了糖尿病整体个案的5至10%,是20岁以下者最常诊断出的糖尿病类型[51]。不过,由于也有在成年发病的例子,所以过去用于代指1型糖尿病的用语“幼年糖尿病”(juvenile-onset diabetes)已不再使用[34]。它的主要特点是制造胰岛素的胰岛β细胞受损,导致胰岛素严重缺乏。若把它进一步细分的可分成“免疫媒介性”及“特发性”两种亚型[51]。大多数1型糖尿病是因为胰岛β细胞受到T细胞介导的自身免疫反应破坏而引起[52]。患者常会在治疗前出现明显的高血糖症状[53]

胰岛B细胞受到自身免疫反应破坏为大多1型糖尿病的成因

1型糖尿病在一定程度上受遗传因子影响,如部分HLA基因型会增加患上1型糖尿病的风险。对于该些在遗传上具易感性的人而言,若遇上特定的环境因子(如病毒感染和特定饮食方式),那么就会患上1型糖尿病[54]。部分病毒已成为引起上述过程的怀疑对象,但欠缺足够而强力的证据支持它们是1型糖尿病的风险因子[54][55]

任何年纪的人都有机会患上1型糖尿病,一些人在成年期期间确诊。成人隐匿迟发性自身免疫糖尿病(LADA)是成年1型糖尿病下的一种子类型。与儿童时期发病的1型糖尿病相比,它的发展相对较慢。因此,非正式情况下它有时会被称为“1.5型糖尿病”[56]。LADA患者常被误诊为2型糖尿病,特别是当年纪放在诊断主要考虑点的情况下[57]

2型

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胰岛素抵抗和胰岛素分泌不足共同促成了2型糖尿病

2型糖尿病的主要特点为胰岛素抵抗及胰岛素分泌不足[12][58]。身体组织上的胰岛素受体英语Insulin receptor在上述过程中扮演了重要角色[59]。2型糖尿病是最常见的糖尿病类型,占了整体糖尿病个案95%以上[2]。很多2型糖尿病患者在符合2型糖尿病的诊断标准之前会先经历糖尿病前期英语Prediabetes阶段(即空腹血糖受损或糖耐量受损)[60]。糖尿病前期人士可以透过改变生活方式及使用抗糖尿病药,来减慢或逆转其发展[61]

2型糖尿病主要跟患者的生活方式和遗传因素有关[62]肥胖BMI>30)、缺乏体力运动饮食不良压力等生活方式因素都会增加患上2型糖尿病的机会[40][63]。30%华裔和日裔患者、60-80%欧裔和非裔患者、100%印第安人和太平洋岛民出现体脂过高的情况[12]。即使有部分2型糖尿病患者不符合肥胖的定义,但他们的腰臀比也相对较高[12]

经常饮用含饮料跟2型糖尿病的风险增加有关[64][65][66]。此外饮食当中的脂肪类型也会影响患病风险,饱和脂肪反式脂肪会令风险增加,多不饱和脂肪酸单不饱和脂肪酸则会降低风险[62]。食用过多白米也会增加患上糖尿病的风险,当中又以华裔和日裔人口的风险为高[67]

虐待、疏忽照顾、家庭困难等童年期不良经历英语Adverse childhood experiences会增加日后患上2型糖尿病的机会约32%,当中又以疏忽照顾的影响较高[68]抗精神病药选择性5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂(SSRI)、5-羟色胺和去甲肾上腺素再摄取抑制剂(SNRI)的副作用(代谢及血脂异常和体重增加)也是潜在风险因子[69]

妊娠糖尿病

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妊娠糖尿病与2型糖尿病存有相似之处,两者的主要特点都是胰岛素抵抗或胰岛素分泌不足。约2-10%的妊娠个案会患上妊娠糖尿病。它在胎儿出产后可能会改善或消失[70]。孕妇在孕期的第24至28周应开始进行妊娠糖尿病筛检[71]。在第二至第三孕期期间,拥有胰岛素对抗作用的激素水平会在体内升高,故妊娠糖尿病常会在这段期间确诊[71]。不过,约5–10%出现妊娠糖尿病的孕妇在怀孕过后会被诊断出患有其他类型的糖尿病,当中又以2型较为常见[70]。妊娠糖尿病可以完全治愈,但需要在怀孕期间进行密切医学监察。妊娠糖尿病的管理方式有改善饮食习惯及监察血糖,部分情况下需使用胰岛素[72]

虽然妊娠糖尿病可能对孕妇有短期影响,但在没得到妥善控制的情况下,它有机会影响母亲及胎儿的健康,包括令婴儿出生时体重特别重心脏中枢神经系统异常、骨骼肌畸形。若胎儿血液内拥有相对较高的胰岛素水平,则可能令表面活性剂的生成受阻,引起新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征。在较严重的个案当中,妊娠糖尿病所引起的血管受损会令胎盘灌注不良,最终导致死产。若出现明显的胎儿窘迫,那么有可能需要剖宫产[73]。此外受妊娠糖尿病影响而出现的巨大胎儿会增加出产时发生肩难产的风险[74]

拥有妊娠糖尿病病史的女性于日后拥有较大风险患上2型糖尿病。因此,他们应进行筛检,并配合均衡饮食、改善生活方式、药物介入等手段来延缓或防止2型糖尿病的发病[75]

青少年发病的成人型糖尿病

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青少年发病的成人型糖尿病英语Maturity-onset diabetes of the young(MODY)是因单基因突变而引起的糖尿病,在整体糖尿病个案中属罕见。患者的胰岛素制造能力因基因突变而出现缺陷[76]。它较上述三种糖尿病类型更为罕见,占整体个案约1–2%。它的命名与有关其本质的早期假说有关。因为它属单基因突变而引起的疾病,因此具体表现及严重程度会因具体基因缺陷的情况而异。它至少可再分为14种亚型[77]。MODY患者通常能在不使用胰岛素的情况下控制血糖[78]

其他类型

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一些人只因为身体组织受体不能有效回应胰岛素水平升跌(但胰岛素水平正常),而患上糖尿病。不过这较为罕见。常染色体或线粒体的基因变异可令胰岛β细胞功能受损。慢性胰腺炎等有机会引起胰脏严重受损的疾病也会导致糖尿病。部分疾病跟拥有胰岛素对抗作用的激素水平升高有关,因此也会引起糖尿病(在去除激素影响下,一般会回复正常的血糖水平)。一些药物会阻碍胰岛素分泌或加强体细胞的胰岛素抵抗,也有一些有毒物质会破坏胰岛β细胞[79]。一些人可能发展出双重糖尿病英语Double diabetes,即患上1型糖尿病后再产生胰岛素对抗性。这可能跟家族病患史、不良的生活习惯、胰岛素治疗的副作用有关[80]

下表列出了可能增加糖尿病患病风险的疾病、手术、药物[79]

病理生理学

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在一天三餐的情况下,血糖(红线)及胰岛素(蓝线)水平在人类体内的变化。此外图中也显示了高糖与高与高淀粉饮食的差异

胰岛素的主要作用为调节血糖——它能促使血液中的葡萄糖进入肝脏、脂肪、肌肉等身体各部分的细胞[82]。因此,糖尿病的主要病理为胰岛素缺乏或胰岛素受体不敏感[83]

人体主要从三种途径获得葡萄糖:从消化道中吸收食物的成分、把肝脏储存的糖原分解、把体内的非碳水化合物物质转化成葡萄糖(糖异生[84]。人体必须利用胰岛素调节血糖水平。它能抑制糖原分解及糖异生的过程、促使葡萄糖进入肌肉及脂肪细胞、刺激肝脏把葡萄糖以糖原的形式储存[84]

一般人在进食能够被身体吸收的碳水化合物后,胰岛的β细胞会因应血糖升高而释放更多胰岛素至血液,促使约66%的体细胞吸收血液中的葡萄糖。在该些细胞当中,葡萄糖是维持正常功能的能量来源及其他分子的转化原料。当血糖水平相对较低时,β细胞会释出较少的胰岛素,同时胰腺会释放胰高血糖素。它会促使糖原转化成葡萄糖,与胰岛素作用相反[85]

在体内胰岛素制造不足、细胞对胰岛素的反应不足(胰岛素抵抗)、胰岛素本身存有缺陷的情况下,细胞便不能有效地吸收血糖,最终引起持续性高血糖和蛋白质合成速度减慢等代谢紊乱问题。若胰岛素绝对缺乏,那么亦有机会并发酸中毒[84]

持续性高血糖会令肾脏不能重吸收英语Reabsorption所有葡萄糖,于是它们便需透过尿液排出体外[86]。在此一情况下,尿液中的葡萄糖会增加该液体的渗透压,令肾脏重吸收水分的能力受损,排尿量因而增加(多尿),加快水分流失。上述过程会令血容量下降,其他身体细胞及腔室的水分因而渗透到血液中,令人脱水及过度口渴多渴[84]。此外,在细胞缺乏葡萄糖的情况下,食欲会受到刺激,导致过度进食(多食)[87]

诊断

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糖尿病可经由测量血糖的方式来诊断。若符合以下其中一项标准,即可诊断为糖尿病[88]

世界卫生组织糖尿病诊断标准[90][91]  编辑
条件 餐后两小时血糖 空腹血糖 HbA1c
mmol/l(mg/dl) mmol/l(mg/dl) %
正常 <7.8(<140) <6.1(<100) <5.7
空腹血糖障碍英语Impaired fasting glucose <7.8(<140) ≥6.1(≥100)& <7.0(<126) 5.7–6.4
糖耐量受损英语Impaired glucose tolerance ≥7.8(≥140) <7.0(<126) 5.7–6.4
糖尿病 ≥11.1(≥200) ≥7.0(≥126) ≥6.5

为了得到准确的诊断结果,若受试者没有明显的高血糖,那么第一次测试后应在不同的日子再测试一次。建议优先测量空腹血糖水平,因为它较为简捷[92]

根据世界卫生组织的标准,空腹血糖6.1-6.9 mmol/L(110-125 mg/dL)可认定为空腹血糖受损[93]。口服75克葡萄糖后2小时血浆葡萄糖等于或大于7.8 mmol/L(140 mg/dL),但不大于11.1 mmol/L(200 mg/dL),则可认定为糖耐量受损。与前者相比,出现后一种情况的人士较有机会于日后确诊糖尿病及其他心血管疾病[94]美国糖尿病协会英语American Diabetes Association(ADA)自2003年起把空腹血糖受损定义为空腹血糖5.6-6.9 mmol/L(100-125 mg/dL)[95]糖化血红素比空腹血糖及口服糖耐量试验更能准确预测日后的心血管风险[96]

预防

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1型糖尿病尚没有有效预防措施[2]。不过,针对胰岛的自身免疫和多种抗体都能有效预测1型糖尿病的发病[97]。 2型糖尿病则能有效预防或延缓其发病[98],手段包括维持正常体重、多运动、养成均衡饮食习惯[2]。高水平的身体运动(每天多于90分钟)能减少糖尿病的风险约28%[99]。日常饮食上多选择全谷物及富含膳食纤维的食物,并以多不饱和脂肪酸取代反式脂肪及饱和脂肪也有助预防2型糖尿病[100]。限制含糖饮料和减少进食红肉等含较高饱和脂肪的食物也有益处[100]。吸烟跟患上糖尿病及其并发症的风险增加有关,因此戒烟也是预防手段之一[101]

2型糖尿病及可控的相关风险因子(过重、不均衡的饮食、缺乏运动、吸烟)跟整体社会环境有关,像全球化城市化人口老化卫生政策般的环境因子都会影响整体人口患上糖尿病的风险[102]

共病

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糖尿病患者的共病会显著提升医疗及相关成本。与非糖尿病患者相比,他们的呼吸道、尿道、皮肤受到感染的风险较高。此外他们也更有可能患上动脉粥样硬化、高血压、慢性肾病。因此,他们需要医疗介入的风险较高[103]。糖尿病患者也较有机会患上新型冠状病毒感染[104][105]

1型糖尿病患者患上其他自身免疫性疾病的风险较高[106]。2-16%的1型糖尿病患者患有乳糜泻[106]

管理

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糖尿病的管理核心为尽量把血糖控制及维持在正常水平,同时尽可能避免低血糖[107]。要达到上述目标,则需要调整饮食习惯[108]、恒常运动、维持适当的体重、使用合适药物(胰岛素及口服降血糖药)[107]

此外,患者对糖尿病的认识和治疗依从性也会对治疗效果产生影响,因为血糖控制良好之人士出现并发症的机会显著较低;即使出现并发症,严重程度也不及控制不佳者[107]。治疗目标是把A1C水平控制在7%以下[109][110]。此外,吸烟、高血压代谢综合征、肥胖、缺乏体力运动等健康问题会加深糖尿病对健康的负面影响,因此治疗的其中一环就是监察和处理该些问题[107][111]。穿着减轻足部压力的特制鞋子英语Diabetic shoe能减少糖尿病足溃疡的风险[112][113][114]。糖尿病患者应每年接受一次足部检查[115]

严重精神障碍患者的2型糖尿病自我管理介入效果尚不明确,缺乏研究证明适用于其他人群的介入是否也适用于该子群体[116]

生活方式

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糖尿病患者可以从卫教中获益。他们应从中了解到有关糖尿病及其治疗方式的知识。此外,因为糖尿病患者有较大风险患上心血管疾病,故他们应透过调整生活的方式来控制血压[117][118]

减重能够预防糖尿病前期人士进一步发展成2型糖尿病、减少患上心血管疾病的风险、改善A1C水平[119][120]。并非所有糖尿病患者都适合采用某种特定的膳食模式[121]。最常推荐的健康膳食模式有地中海饮食低碳水化合物饮食得舒饮食,不过证据上并不支持“其中一款较好”的说法[119][120]。美国糖尿病协会指出“对糖尿病患者而言,减少整体碳水化合物摄取量是得到最多证据支持的改善血糖方法”;对于无法达到血糖目标或需减少降糖药物的2型糖尿病患者而言,可采用低至极低碳水化合物饮食模式来协助达到目标[120]。对伴随过重问题的2型糖尿病患者而言,任何有助减重的饮食模式都是有效的[121][122]

2020年,考科蓝上的一篇系统性综述探讨了非营养型甜味剂在跟糖、安慰剂、营养性甜味剂(塔格糖)比较之下,对糖尿病的影响。结论是非营养型甜味剂对糖化血红素、体重、不良事件的影响尚不明确[123]。该综述所纳入的研究并没有就健康相关的生活质量、糖尿病并发症、全因死亡率、社经影响作进一步调查[123]

药物

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抗糖尿病药

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大多数用于治疗糖尿病的药物都会降低血糖水平。糖尿病患者若维持严格的血糖控制,把血糖尽量控制在正常水平,那么出现并发症的机会就越低[124][125]。但有关目标是否适用于较年老的患者及相关成本效益仍有争议,尤其是考虑到低血糖事件对上述群体存有较高风险的情况下[126]

抗糖尿病药能够再细分成多种类型。1型糖尿病患者须接受需胰岛素治疗。若没有特殊情况,一般建议他们应同时选用基础胰岛素和餐前胰岛素,用以模拟正常人体分泌胰岛素时的情况[127]。2型糖尿病一般以口服二甲双胍等降糖药的方式控制,不过也有人最终需透过注射胰岛素或GLP-1受体激动剂的方式来控制血糖[128]

二甲双胍是2型糖尿病的一线治疗药物。良好证据显示它有助降低死亡风险[7]。它能减少肝藏的葡萄糖生成,增加外周组织的葡萄糖储存总量[129]。其他药物也有助令2型糖尿病患者的血糖降低,它们的作用各有不同——例如磺酰脲类能增加胰岛素供应;阿卡波糖英语Acarbose会阻碍消化道吸收糖分;DPP-4抑制剂能抑制二肽基肽酶-4(DPP-4),从而增加胰高血糖素样肽-1(GLP-1)和葡萄糖依赖性促胰岛素多肽(GLP)的分泌;噻唑烷二酮类能增加体细胞的胰岛素敏敏性;SGLT2抑制剂能增加尿液中的葡萄糖总量[129]。2型糖尿病患者一旦需接受胰岛素治疗,一般先会安排长效胰岛素,同时也需继续使用口服药物[7]。然后若们的血糖仍没达到目标水平,则需加大胰岛素剂量[7]

控制血压

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心血管疾病是跟糖尿病有关的严重并发症,大多国际指引建议糖尿病患者的血压水平应低于140/90 mmHg[130]。较低的目标水平对健康的益处则欠证据证明。2016年的系统性综述发现低于140 mmHg的治疗目标具有潜在伤害性[131]

2015年美国糖尿病协会建议糖尿病患者若合并出现白蛋白尿,则应使用肾素-血管张力素系统抑制剂,以减少日后发展成末期肾病及出现心血管事件的风险[132]。有证据表明血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂(ACEIs)比血管紧张素II受体拮抗剂(ARBs)和阿利吉仑英语Aliskiren更能预防心血管疾病[133][134]。但后来(2016年)的系统综述发现ACEIs和ARBs的在预防心血管疾病和肾病上的效果接近[135]。没有证据证明ACEIs和ARBs联合使用的效果更佳[135]

阿司匹林

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为预防糖尿病患者并发心血管疾病而使用阿司匹林是有争议的[132]。一些研究者支持若属心血管疾病高风险群体,则应使用阿司匹林。不过若只患有糖尿病而没伴随其他风险因素,持续使用阿司匹林并没有改善效果[136]。2015年,美国糖尿病协会表示对具心血管疾病中度风险的糖尿病患者(10年内出现心血管疾病的风险为5–10%)而言,使用低剂量阿司匹林是合理的[132]英国国家临床卓越研究院英语National Institute for Health and Care Excellence的指引则建议若1型或2型糖尿病患者没有伴随已知的心血管疾病,则不应使用阿司匹林[127][128]

手术

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对伴有肥胖问题的2型糖尿病患者而言,减肥手术是有效的治疗措施[137]。很多患者术后只需使用少量药物就能把血糖控制在正常水平,甚至能完全停药[138],他们的长期死亡率也会降低[139]。不过手术的短期死亡风险为<1%[140]。BMI>35者应考虑进行减肥手术[141][142]

部分合并严重糖尿病并发症的1型糖尿病患者可能会进行胰脏移植手术,例如合并末期肾病,需接受肾脏移植的患者可能在手术期间一并接受胰脏移植[143]

约3成糖尿病患者受糖尿病周边神经病变影响[144]。若周边神经病变之上亦出现神经压迫综合征,那么便可以神经减压术英语Nerve decompression来治疗[145][146]。因为大多周边神经病变的影响可归因于周围神经系统在结构上受压迫,而非病变本身的影响[147][148]。减压术与疼痛量表数值下降、两点辨别觉提升、减少截肢风险等良好结果有关[148][149][145][146]

自我管理与支援

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在英国等地区,糖尿病的基础护理主要由医院外的一般科医师跟进。而医院内的专科医师则只负责血糖难以控制的个案、并发症管理、进行相关研究项目。其他情况下一般科医师和专科医师会以团队形式合作提供护理服务。证据显示社会处方模式能略为改善2型糖尿病患者的血糖控制[150]。家居远程医疗支援也是有效的[151]

使用电脑软件来教育2型糖尿病患者进行自我管理也能帮助控制血糖。该些软件会收集患者输入的数据,然后产生个人化回应,促进自我管理[152]。不过没有证据证明它们对胆固醇、血压、体能运动等其他健康指标的影响[152][153]

流行病学

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世界各地的糖尿病盛行率(2014年)
世界各地每百万人的糖尿病死亡率(2012年)
  28–91
  92–114
  115–141
  142–163
  164–184
  185–209
  210–247
  248–309
  310–404
  405–1879

在1990年至2022年期间,全球确诊糖尿病的人数呈上升趋势——由约2亿人升至8.3亿人[16]。在2022年,约14%成年人口受糖尿病影响,比1990年的7%多[16]。一些数据显示男女患病率接近[18],但男性在很多地区占了2型糖尿病患者的多数,这可能是因为胰岛素敏感性下降、肥胖、高血压等风险因子存有性别差异[154][155]

世界卫生组织表示在2021年,全球有约160万人直接死于糖尿病[2],在死亡原因中位居第八位[22]。另外,由它引起的肾病变也使530,000人死亡,与高血糖相关的心血管疾病占了整体心血管疾病死亡个案的11%[2],它们常会在死亡证明上被视为直接死因,因此有可能不把糖尿病的影响计算在内[156][157]。例如国际糖尿病联合会在2025年估计全球有340万人因糖尿病及糖尿病相关并发症而死亡[9],此一估计把没经确诊的糖尿病个案及糖尿病增加的并发症风险也考虑在内[9]

高收入国家的糖尿病盛行率高于中收入及低收入国家[9]。不过在1990年至2022年期间,低收入及中收入国家的糖尿病盛行率上升幅度较大[20]。约79%糖尿病患者生活在低收入及中收入国家[158]。低收入国家约73%的糖尿病相关死亡个案在患者60岁前发生[159]。预计在2024年至2050年期间,非洲地区的糖尿病盛行率会上升142%[9]。发展中国家的糖尿病盛行率上升与该些国家需要体力劳动的工作减少,坐式生活型态及西方膳食模式日渐盛行的趋势相符[156][160]。预计在2024年至2050年期间,全球糖尿病个案数目会增加17%[9]。2024年,多于33%的美国人口处于糖尿病前期阶段[161]

历史

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糖尿病是最早被纪录的一系列疾病之一[162]。公元前约1500年的一份古埃及手写本便提到“排尿量过多”[163]。《埃伯斯纸草卷》建议若出现上述情况,则应喝一杯特制饮料[164]。利奥尼德·波列茨基(Leonid Poretsky)等研究者相信第一批得到纪录的个案是患上1型糖尿病[163]。同一时期的印度医师则以“蜜糖尿”(madhumeha)称之,并表示病人的尿液会吸引蚂蚁注意[163][164]

公元前230年,古罗马的阿莱泰乌斯首次以“diabetes”称呼该疾病[163]罗马帝国时期的盖伦表示这一疾病十分罕见,他在从业后也只遇过两宗病例[163]。这一观察可能源于古代的生活方式令人较少患上糖尿病,或糖尿病需经长时间发展才会出现临床症状。盖伦后把它命名为“泻尿”(diarrhea urinosa[165]

活跃于公元前2或3世纪的医师阿莱泰乌斯则留下已知最早的糖尿病详细纪录。他在纪录中描述了该疾病的症状和病程,之后根据当时普遍的普纽玛观念,认为该病是因湿气和寒气过重所致。除此之外,他也假设该疾病跟其他疾病有关,并写下如何区分糖尿病和同样会导致过度口渴的蛇咬。1552年,他的著作被翻译成拉丁文后,西方社会才广为得知他的上述纪录[165]

公元400-500年,印度医师妙闻揭罗迦英语Charaka首度提出把糖尿病分成两类的概念,他们表示其中一种跟年轻有关,另一种则跟过重有关[163]。直到1921至1922年期间弗雷德里克·班廷查尔斯·赫伯特·贝斯特成功分离和纯化胰岛素后,糖尿病患者才获得有效的治疗手段[163]。1946年,NPH胰岛素面世[166]

词源

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“diabetes”一词源自拉丁语diabētēs”,后者为古希腊语“διαβήτης”的翻译,它的意思是“虹吸管”[167]。阿莱泰乌斯因该病会出现“过分排尿”的情况,而借用该用语代指此一现象[168][169]。而它本身则由古希腊语διαβαίνειν演变而来,意思是“穿过”[167]。后者为δια-(通过)和βαίνειν(前往)之组合[168]

而“mellitus”同样源自拉丁文“mellītus”,意指“以蜂蜜加甜”或“蜂蜜的甜味”[170][171]。它的前半部分“mell-”为“mel”的变体,意指蜂蜜、甜味、愉快的事物[170][171][171]。字尾“-ītus”与英语字尾“-ite”的意思相同[172]。1675年,托马斯·威利斯在发现病人的尿液带有甜味后,决定在“diabetes”后方加入“mellitus”,以此作为该疾病的正式用语[173]

中国古代医学文献上的“消渴”的多种表现跟糖尿病相符。如《黄帝内经》便提及“消渴”及它类似糖尿病的症状[174]。19世纪中期至20世纪初的中英文字典常把“diabetes”同时解作尿崩症和糖尿病,例如麦都思的《英汉字典》(1847-1848)把它译为“尿痳”(尿崩症);合信的《医学英华字释》(1858)把它解作“溺太多味变甜”(尿崩症与糖尿病)。之后亦有淋甜尿症、糖尿症、消渴溺甜、痟等译法,但条目上会跟尿崩症的译名痟尿淋症或尿崩合并。1915年的《辞海》则把“diabetes”称作糖尿病。1921年科学名词编订馆在报告中决定把“diabetes insipidue”(使用了错误拼法,正确拼法为“insipidus”)专门翻译成尿崩症,而“diabetes mellitus”则译成糖尿病[175]。日本也曾使用消渴来形容该病。之后在19世纪以“蜜尿证”或“蜜尿病”称之,到了1907年第四届日本内科学演讲会则决定统一使用“糖尿病”[176]

参考文献

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  1. ^ Diabetes Blue Circle Symbol. International Diabetes Federation. 2006-03-17. (原始内容存档于2007-08-05). 
  2. ^ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 Diabetes. www.who.int. [2025-07-29]. 
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